Theory paper for sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hypothesis paper for human science - Essay Example In this manner, family goes about as an incorporating system. Also, family makes social request. Along these lines family goes about as a unit of strength for the general public to work in general. Talcott Parsons makes this idea a stride further by clarifying two basic elements of family. These capacities reveal to us the manner in which the family acts and discloses to us the conduct of the people in the family. The principal fundamental capacity of the family is the essential socialization of the youthful. Parsons (1951) contends that families resemble production lines delivering human characters and personalities. It is the family alone that gives the security and enthusiastic covering to the person at an early age. A case of such conduct is the dedicating of the youngster or when they commend birthday celebrations. The youngster discovers that society resembles a human living being the place torments and satisfaction is shared. The family is a small society and acts along these lines. The other capacity of family referenced by Parsons is the adjustment of grown-up characters. As per him through the sexual division of work family keeps up grown-up characters and settles them. The man has the instrumental job of a provider and the female includes an expressive job inside the family.

The Impact of Green Energy on Environment and Sustainable Development

Today, numerous specialists and environmentalists focus on the issues of the earth with references to the thought of the manageable turn of events. The worldwide network is tested by a great deal of issues related with the natural contamination and the consistent development of utilizing the fiery assets. The financial advancement of the world with complementing the ideas of human advancement and industrialization depends on the utilization of a great deal of vitality significantly.Advertising We will compose a custom paper test on The Impact of Green Energy on Environment and Sustainable Development explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Traditional strategies for getting the fundamental measure of intensity for addressing the requirements of the created refers to and ventures can't be examined as proficient as per the danger of the natural contamination which is the impact of the created vitality industry. Additionally, the conventional ways to deal with the vitalit y frameworks don't address the possibility of the reasonable turn of events. That is the reason, it is important to focus on the elective techniques for getting the force. Environmentally friendly power vitality can be talked about as the viable method to advance the vital measure of vitality for the ventures, urban domains, and endeavors without harming the earth. Starting here, the idea of efficient power vitality is firmly associated with sustainable power source which is frequently examined as the wellspring of intensity with the negligible negative impacts. Manageable advancement is one of the most critical prerequisites to the cutting edge society according to the general propensities of the worldwide advancement with references to the issues of the nature and condition. The primary standard of the supportable advancement depends on tending to the requests of the cutting edge populace with focusing on the potential needs of things to come ages. Be that as it may, contemporary issues which are related with the natural contamination brought about by the cutting edge vitality businesses can be examined as risky for giving the essential supportable turn of events. Today, ventures and force assets can be considered as the primary driver for the nursery impacts and an Earth-wide temperature boost which can prompt the adjustments in the atmosphere, air, soil, and water contamination. The carbon dioxide as the consequence of the vitality ventures is the principle air poison which can impact the adjustments in the earth drastically. Besides, the use of the vitality assets relies upon the devastation of the scenes and deforestation of the regions. The following issue is the significant level of the vitality utilization which ought to be decreased so as to save the normal equalization (Wengenmayr Buhrke, 2008). In this way, to conquer all these negative impacts of utilizing the customary vitality assets, it is huge to concentrate on using the elective assets of int ensity which can be talked about as green energy.Advertising Looking for article on natural examinations? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Green vitality depends on using the intensity of the characteristic fiery procedures, for example, wind power, sun oriented vitality, geothermal force, biomass force, and wave power (Boyle, 2004). These procedures are acknowledged nearly with no contamination that is the reason they can be considered as useful for giving vitality to structures in the urban domains and for ventures. The advanced world needs focusing on the use of the distinct clean vitality innovations which can diminish the negative effects on the earth. The abatement of the natural contamination brought about by the vitality frameworks is significant as a result of the dynamic use of conventional vitality assets for lighting, warming, and cooling the cutting edge structures inside the urban domains. The judicious use of vitality with references to diminishing the vitality utilization is the principle assignment of the worldwide network so as to address the necessities of manageability. The negative effect of the carbon dioxide and the other unsafe emanations which cause the air contamination because of building up the vitality frameworks can be diminished with utilizing such vitality assets as, for example wind, power and sunlight based vitality. The mechanical advancement and an incredible number of innovative developments which can add to utilizing environmentally friendly power vitality in numerous divisions of the people’s life are huge for the supportable turn of events. The innovations related with using the environmentally friendly power vitality and sustainable power source assets address the standards of manageability and can have the positive long haul impacts (MacKay, 2009). By the by, it is difficult to utilize a similar environmentally friendly power vitality assets inside vario us domains. The decision of the proper efficient power vitality asset which can fulfill the requirements of the nearby region or association with references to the inquiries of accessibility and economy is the challengeable procedure, however the viable utilization of sustainable power source and the positive consequences of the decision can add to lessening the expenses on vitality and to utilizing the vitality framework absent a lot of contamination. The effect of efficient power vitality on condition and supportable advancement can be talked about as positive on account of a scope of the related variables. These days, it is noteworthy to focus on lessening the vitality utilization and expenses in the circumstance when the population’s requests increment and on reducing the waste and contamination gave by the vitality enterprises. The conventional vitality assets as the fossil vitality have a great deal of negative impacts for nature and ought to be changed with the electiv e force assets. Starting here, the utilization of environmentally friendly power vitality assets is the viable method to address the necessities of the general public and the standards of economical development.Advertising We will compose a custom paper test on The Impact of Green Energy on Environment and Sustainable Development explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Boyle, G. (2004). Sustainable power source: Power for a supportable future. USA: Oxford University Press. MacKay, D. (2009). Manageable vitality †without the sight-seeing. USA: UIT Cambridge Ltd. Wengenmayr, R. Buhrke, T. (2008). Sustainable power source. USA: Wiley-VCH. This exposition on The Impact of Green Energy on Environment and Sustainable Development was composed and presented by client Okoye to help you with your own examinations. You are allowed to utilize it for research and reference purposes so as to compose your own paper; be that as it may, you should refer to it in like manner. You can give your paper here.

Is it good to be an only child Sample Essay

Is it good to be an only child Sample Essay A single child can get all the parents’ attention. A single child can be happy or unhappy because of that. There are many myths regarding the effects of being an only child that need to be proved or refuted. Taking a look at the world from the point of view of one kid in a family can make some aspects of upbringing clear and precise. About one quarter of Americans have one kid. They are supposed to give all their attention to one kid and spend most of the time with him or her. No one interrupts playing, watching cartoons and no one screams next to you in the stroller. If you are the single kid, you will receive all the gifts for all the holidays in your family. Being an only child: pros and cons More and more people ask themselves what are the pros and cons of being an only child, essay writers say there’s nothing to worry about while others are afraid of the consequences. You cannot make any parents have more babies than they want. We can only think how not to turn into monsters if there’s a chance to become the one. If we take a look at the life of a young person from outside, it may seem that this very child is not obedient and its spoilt. One of the most popular disadvantages of being an only child (psychology aspect) is feeling lonely. However, the latest researches have proved that the number of kids doesnt influence the behavior of the children directly. It mostly depends on how parents show their love and let their children be independent in some situations. If we all look around at people that surround us, we will never define for sure who has brothers or sisters. Its impossible to define by the appearance or behavior of a person. As a kid cannot regulate the number of people in his or her family, he or she will have to learn how to adapt his or her lifestyle to coexist with someone else in one apartment or house. It can be good for developing communicative skills and bad for defining personal space. There are no firm lists of so-called pros or cons of being alone or having siblings. We can only talk about some general cases that happen in most families. The pros of being an only child can be discussed for many hours in a row. We’ll give you facts about being an only child. Here are the major ones: You don’t share your mom and dad with anyone else; You don’t share your room and things with anyone else; You can play with any toy in your room yourself; No one bothers you when you want to have rest. The reasons why being an only child is bad usually come out when the kid is growing and becoming older. Here are the cons: There are no people to share your little secrets; There are no people to talk to when you feel sad; There are no people to make friends when you are away; There are no people to take care of your elderly parents except you. Of course, the list of advantages of single child could be much bigger, but researchers define these issues to be the most important for kids and teenagers. All kids are different, so one and the same thing can be both a pro and a con for several persons. Judging all the kids and their behavior only because they’re the only one is a bad idea. An example of being an only child: essay I can imagine myself having siblings. Somebody is watching me most of the time. I cannot stay alone when I need it very much. I hate sharing all my toys and my personal space with someone else. I can’t leave home and make sure nobody will know about it. I cannot have private meetings in my room or private calls. I cannot have a private life anymore. Is it depressing? Is it fun? I can imagine myself being a single kid. I’m all alone and nobody’s here to hug me. I don’t have anyone to share my toys with. I can’t go somewhere far away and leave my parents all alone. I’m always guilty for everything that I’ve done wrong as I don’t have anyone to blame. I don’t have anyone to celebrate my birthday at home or when we’re somewhere out of the home city. I can love a life of a single child. I can hate it. I choose the role and I choose the position in my life. I’m responsible for my life path and my views. My state of mood doesn’t really depend on someone or something else. I can do anything. Someone loves winter and snow while someone else hates it all. The same works with being an only child, advantages and disadvantages mean nothing if you don’t love your family or you cannot live without a close person near you. Advantages and disadvantages of being an only child: essay conclusion The world is so diverse and full of people that you cannot exist alone. Psychologists dont see the difference between the problems that people face when they have siblings and when they dont have them. Having a sister or a brother cannot be good or bad for 100%. Everything depends on the likes and preferences of a single person. Good loving parents can help overcome any hard situation in life of any kid, so thinking that single kids suffer from loneliness is not correct. Parents need to take care of every child they give birth to no matter whether they have only one or five kids.

Essay about Prometheus - 1431 Words

Prometheus Prometheus, the Titan of Greek mythology, was considered to be the most important Titan ever in all the myths. He helped the human race tremendously in his efforts to sustain an easier lifestyle. Mankind had great respect for him because of his advantages and gifts or abilities he gave them. Also, his battle against Zeus as a result of his love for man was very much appreciated. Prometheus was one of the most interesting Greek mythology figures in his time. He was a very kind, loving, generous, and courteous god to mankind. This can be seen through many events in his life including a particular myth that the reader will acknowledge in this research paper. Prometheus birth has two sides of stories behind the†¦show more content†¦Later, Prometheus took it back or stole it from Zeus and brought it to Earth for man again. In this, Zeus sent a Pandora to Epimetheus as a punishment for fire and Prometheus siding with mankind. Epimetheus later married her, even though Prometheus had told him not to do so or warned him. After that, mankind never again had been as privileged as before again (Britannica 1). In Prometheus many accomplishments, Prometheus was said to have created man. During the war of the Titans and Olympians, Prometheus and Epimetheus had not fought, so their lives were saved from imprisonment in Tatarus. The duty given to Prometheus by Zeus was to make or create man. With this, he carved and structured man from mud and earth, and the goddess, Athena, breathed life into it. Epimetheus was given the duty by Prometheus to provide the creatures of the Earth certain intelligence, strength, fur, hair, specific body parts, sharpness, swiftness, and other characteristics or traits. Since Epimetheus had already provided all the other creatures of the earth the better characteristics, there were none let for man. Because of this, Prometheus made a decision to give man advantages like the ability to stand upright, similar to the gods, and to provide them fire (Hunt 1). Man hadShow MoreRelatedThe Modern Prometheus Essays1585 Words   |  7 PagesThe Modern Prometheus Did Mary Shelley initially title her work about Victor Frankenstein and his creation The Modern Prometheus solely because of the glaring similarities between their stories? That is a question that is often discussed, but a conclusion rarely arrives. One of the possible reasons for this could be because there are many different interpretations of the Promethean myth, which are mainly based on the ambiguous nature of the story. The parallels between the Promethean myth andRead MoreComparing The Prometheus And Genesis1530 Words   |  7 PagesAnalyzing texts is one of the most fundamental and key parts to drawing conclusions about them. Upon analyzing the two versions of the Prometheus myth and the consequent chapters of Genesis, it is quite clear that how one views each piece is subject to their previous knowledge. Today, it is much easier to read Prometheus objectively. It would generally be safe to assume that no one in proximity is a worshipper of Zeus. Reading Genesis is fairly different. Everyone in North America, and most otherRead MoreThe Modern Prometheus By Mary Shelley Essay1839 Words   |  8 PagesFrankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, in 1818. Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus consisted of mostly male characters, with little to no attention to female characters. This abundance of attention to male roles represented the dominance of males in society that tended to silence the importance of women. The subtitle of Mary Shelley’s novel, The Modern Prometheus, obviously alludes to the Greek Titan, Prometheus. Prometheus was given the task of creating mankind out of clay. 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In order to illustrate the main theme of her novel Frankenstein, Mary Shelly draws strongly on the myth of Prometheus, as the subtitle The Modern Prometheus indicates. Maurice Hindle, in his critical study of the novel, suggests, the primary theme of Frankenstein is what happens to human sympathies and relationships when men seek obsessively to satisfy their Promethean longings to conquer the unknown - supposedly in the service of their fellow-humansRead MoreMary Shelley s Frankenstein And The Modern Prometheus871 Words   |  4 PagesModern Prometheus. So it shouldn t come as a shock that Mary Shelley was actually influenced by this tale. Her husband Percy Shelley had actually begun composing his own tale of Prometheus in the form of poetry entitled, Prometheus Unbound. He began composing this piece around the same time that his wife was publishing Frankenstein. Mary Shelley included The Modern Prometheus as part of her title for the novel and she attempts to compare Victor Fran kenstein, and the Monster with Prometheus. (wwwRead MoreEssay on The Myth of Prometheus and Mary Shelleys Frankenstein1296 Words   |  6 PagesFrankenstein is similar to that of a Greek tragedy and namely the myth of the titan, Prometheus. The characters as well as the plot are all similar between the two stories. Many have argued that Frankenstein is based on the Prometheus myth. I will attempt to show that there are many different parts of Frankenstein that are remarkably similar to the myth and draw a comparison between the two stories. The story of Prometheus is similar in many ways to that of Frankenstein. In Frankenstein, Victor uses allRead MoreEssay about Character Analysis: Zeus and Prometheus 1307 Words   |  6 Pagestwo myths here, each about Prometheus. 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Nutrition And Weight Status On The City Of Miami Gardens,...

McDonalds, Burger king, Checkers, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), Popeyes Louisiana Chicken; Just to name a few, are the most leading fast food that contribute to a lot of health problems in the United States of America. For example, a double quarter pounder with cheese that only cost $4.79 from McDonalds contains 740 in calories, 42g of fat, 43g carbohydrates, 47g protein and 1300mg in sodium. Obesity contributes to a lot of health problems and is growing rapidly. This is the main reason why I would like to focus my study in Nutrition and Weight Status in the city of Miami Gardens, Florida, Dade County. It is the city where I reside and can witness first hand the concern for our future generation. Body weight and diet are highlights of†¦show more content†¦The funding of the program will be through donations from local hospitals, clinics, schools and parents. The program is schedule for the summer for the duration of two months. We will start on June 21st through August 24th of 2015. The community would get together twice a week at a local park to share ideas and participate in activities such as sports and walkathons. We would also educate kids on how important it is to drop the video game controls and go outside breathe fresh air, get some sunlight and get more involved in physical activities. Our weekly schedule consists of meeting up every Mondays and Tuesdays for an educational session about the food pyramid and vitamins. On Fridays we will have activities, such as sports and games. Saturdays will be reserved for walkathons and getting the word out. There are several ways that we are going to educate the young generations of ways to not only help them maintain a normal weight but also to educate them on the nutritious facts. For example, the amount of nutrition that are good to consume and how much is healthy for the body on a daily basis. First and foremost, a way to better assist the people in the community is to implement a program that could help them choose to eat healthy, exercise regularly and overall take better care of them selves. Moreover, getting the targeted audience involved such as the children

To Kill or Not to Kill Free Essays

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: TO KILL OR NOT TO KILL Student: Dave Cameron Professor: Robert Ashley Class: CAN271FA Law The Citizen The first record of capital punishment in Canada is that of Peter Cartcel, a sailor who murdered Abraham Goodsides, a sailor from another ship, in 1749. Peter Cartcel was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death by hanging. Capital punishment was first implemented in Canada in 1749 when it was under British rule as a British colony. We will write a custom essay sample on To Kill or Not to Kill or any similar topic only for you Order Now The death penalty was not abolished in Canada until 1976. The last instance of Capital punishment was an execution that took place at Toronto’s Don Jail on December 11, 1962. Arthur Lucas, a man convicted of killing an FBI informant and Ronald Turpin, a petty thief who shot a policeman while fleeing a restaurant robbery, were the last two individuals to be hung in Canada. Over the course of the two centuries that Capital punishment was in use in Canada, 710 individuals were executed. Canada should not re-instate the death penalty for any offences due to the fact that the legal system is still not an exact science and many innocent individuals continue to be wrongfully accused of crimes. There are many disadvantages to Capital punishment and reinstating it would be an egregious error on our nation’s part and we would be taking a step backwards in terms of our civility and humanity. If Canada reinstates the death penalty, there is a possibility that many individuals will be executed for crimes they did not commit. While there are no known cases of wrongful executions in Canada, between the years of 1879 and 1960, 438 death sentences were commuted as a result of newfound evidence etc. Had those 438 death sentences not been commuted, it is possible that 438 innocent Canadian citizens would have been put to death. Despite the fact that there is no evidence of wrongful executions in Canada, there have been many cases of individuals who have been exonerated of their crimes years after they were executed in other nations. One infamous case of wrongful execution occurred in the United States. Claude Jones, a United States citizen, was executed in the year 2000 for murdering liquor storeowner Allen Hilzendager in 1989. In 2007, a DNA test revealed that the strand of hair that was used by the prosecution to convict Claude Jones was actually a strand of hair belonging to the victim, proving Claude Jones’ innocence. Similar to Claude Jones’ proven innocence years after his execution, there have been many wrongful executions in other nations throughout the world. In the United Kingdom, Timothy Evans was found guilty of murdering his wife and daughter in 1950. The serial killer John Christie in fact committed the murders. The police coerced Timothy Evans into a false confession. The police also did not do a proper search of John Christie’s property and failed to find other human remains. Timothy Evans was granted a royal pardon in 1966, however an innocent life had been needlessly taken. Capital punishment was abolished in the United Kingdom partly because of Timothy Evans wrongful execution. If Capital punishment did not exist in these nations, the lives of many innocent men and women would have been spared. Therefore, Capital punishment should not be reinstated in Canada because it is not worth the possibility that innocent Canadians will be put to death for crimes they did not commit. If an individual is wrongfully accused for a crime, incarcerated for life and are exonerated, they can be released and resume their former life. However, a wrongful execution cannot be undone or taken back, it is permanent. It has been proven throughout the history of modern of law, particularly throughout the history of English common law, which is the basis of the Canadian legal system in every province in Canada except for Quebec, a province where they practice Civil law, that 50% of eyewitness testimony is false. Eyewitness testimony is the most influential deciding factor for a Jury during trial and 95-100% of crimes that carry Capital punishment are trails with a Jury. Therefore, there is a very high risk that innocent individuals will be put in jail and sentenced to Capital punishment based on a Jury swayed by false eyewitness testimony. Capital punishment has been used by nearly all nations throughout the world at one point in history. The use of Capital punishment as part of the justice system began with recorded history and it has made many changes and advances over the millennia that it has been in use. To its credit, there have been many movements towards more humane forms of execution, especially throughout the last century. Prisoners are no longer being boiled to death, crucified or impaled, however execution as a form of punishment is still seen as a gruesome act by many countries, including Canada. The more humane forms of execution that have been invented and implemented in modern jails include the electric chair, the gas chamber and lethal injection. These forms of â€Å"humane† execution are used in the United States where Capital punishment is legal. Many societies with Capital punishment ascribe to the Biblical Old Testament form of law, the idea of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, where a person who has harmed another should be similarly harmed in retribution. However, if you take an eye for an eye every time someone is wronged, the whole world will go blind. Another disadvantage to Capital punishment is that one of the purposes of jails in modern society is to rehabilitate inmates. Jails do not only exist to protect society from criminals that can harm the innocent, they also have the intention of rehabilitating inmates so that they can rejoin society as healthy, functioning members who can contribute in a meaningful way. There are many different types of rehabilitation programs established in Canadian prisons. One important rehabilitation program gives inmates access to educational services that they did not receive prior to their incarceration for various socio-economic reasons. These educational services allow inmates, who are often lacking basic education, to become literate, receive their General Education Development diploma, participate in vocational education programs, earn College diplomas and earn University degrees. One of the leading causes of crime is poverty, which is often caused by a cycle of illiteracy and a lack of education. Inmates should be given a chance to be educated while serving their sentence so that they can be rehabilitated into society, rather than being executed. When Capital punishment is in place in a nation, no societal progress can be made. Thousands of lives are taken and no change is made, the cycle of crime continues. Another leading cause of crime is drug and alcohol abuse. Many individuals resort to crime to support their expensive drug and alcohol habits and the majority have not received drug treatment prior to their incarceration. Another important rehabilitation program in Canadian prisons is the drug treatment program. Studies have shown that inmates who are required to participate in drug rehabilitation programs combined with therapy show positive results. The purpose of jails is to not only punish criminals, but to rehabilitate them into society. Inmates need to be given a chance to receive the rehabilitation they need, such as drug and alcohol treatment and an education before their lives are taken away. The solution to crime in our society is not Capital punishment. It is finding the source and the root of the crime, such as poverty, lack of education and drug and alcohol abuse and solving these problems and rehabilitating these individuals. Once inmates are successfully rehabilitated the level of crime will greatly diminish and no lives need to be taken in the form of Capital punishment. There are numerous disadvantages to reinstating Capital punishment in Canada, however one of the advantages to Capital punishment is it costs less money to execute a prisoner than to house them for life. In Canada, rather than receiving the death penalty for crimes such as murder, individuals receive 25 years in prison without the possibility of parole for the duration of those 25 years. It is possible that these individuals will remain in prison for the rest of their lives. If the crime is particularly heinous, the prisoner is designated a dangerous offender. This makes the possibility of parole much more difficult to obtain. Prisoners can also be designated long-term offenders. This is less serious than being designated a dangerous offender, however it is still difficult to receive parole. The designation of dangerous offender and long-term offender are made after individuals are convicted. The prisoners only given these designations once they have received a fair trail. Prisoners such as long-term offenders and dangerous offenders who remain in jail for 25 or more years cost Canadian tax payers and the Government an enormous amount of money. One advantage to Capital punishment is it’s financial benefit to the nations that implement it. The annual cost of housing an inmate in Canada can range between $52,000 to $250,000 a year depending on level of security of the facility in which the inmate is being held. Multiply that figure by the 25 years an inmate serves when sentenced to life in prison instead of receiving Capital punishment and the housing of an inmate for life in Canada ranges from $1,300,000 to $6,250,000. It is Canadian taxpayers who pay for the housing of inmates through the Government. However, the financial benefit of killing individuals instead of housing them for life is not worth potentially killing the innocent. There are many advantages and disadvantages to Capital punishment, however it should not be reinstated in Canada. The disadvantages far outweigh the advantages and it is simply not worth the possibility of potentially killing innocent individuals just to save the taxpayers and the Government money. Works Cited List Jobb, Dean. Bluenose Justice: True Tales of Mischief, Mayhem and Murder. â€Å"First Blood. † (Hantsport, N. S. : Lancelot Press, 1996), pages: 135-40. Napolitano, Angelina. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. University of Toronto. 2011. http://www. biographi. ca/index-e. html. Web. 9 Jul. 2012. American Psychological Association. â€Å"Inmate Drug Abuse Treatment Slows Prison’s Revolving Door. † American Psychological Association. 2004. http://www. apa. org/research/action/aftercare. aspx. Web. 10 Jul. 2012. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. â€Å"Doing The Crime And Doing The Time. † Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2012. http://www. cbc. ca/canadavotes 2006/realitycheck/crimetime. html. Web. 10 Jul. 2012. Center on Wrongful Convictions. Claude Jones. † Northwestern University School of Law. 2006. http://www. law. northwestern. edu/cwc/issues/wrongfulexecutions/ txjonescsummary. html. Web. 9 Jul. 2012. Correctional Service Canada. â€Å"Staff Development and the Formation of Curriculum in Prison Education. † Correctional Service Canada. 2012. http://www. csc-scc. gc. ca/text/pblct/forum/e 031/e031l-eng. shtml. Web. 10 Jul. 2012. Crime Museum. â€Å"Wrongful Execution. † National Museum of Crime and Punishment. 2008. http://www. crimemuseum. org/library/execution/wrongfulExecution. html. Web. 9 Jul. 2012. Michael Bromby. Glasgow Caledonian University. â€Å"An Examination of Criminal Jury Directions in Relation to Eyewitness Identification in Commonwealth Jurisdictions. † Glasgow Caledonian University. http://gcal. academia. edu/Michael Bromby/Papers/9952/An_Examination_of_Criminal_Jury_Directions_in_Relation_to_Eyewitness_Identification_in_Commonwealth_Jurisdictions. Web. 10 Jul. 2012. Steven Duke. Yale Law School. â€Å"Eyewitness Testimony Doesn’t Make It True. † Yale Law School. 2006. http://www. law. yale. edu/news/2727. htm. Web. 10 Jul. 2012. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Dean Jobb, â€Å"First Blood,† in Bluenose Justice: True Tales of Mischief, Mayhem and Murder (Hantsport, N. S. : Lancelot Press, 1996), pages: 135-40. [ 2 ]. Dean Jobb, â€Å"First Blood,† in Bluenose Justice: True Tales of Mischief, Mayhem and Murder (Hantsport, N. S. : Lancelot Press, 1996), pages: 135-40. [ 3 ]. Angelina Napolitano. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. http://www. biographi. ca/index-e. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. [ 4 ]. Angelina Napolitano. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online: http://www. biographi. ca/index-e. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. [ 5 ]. Angelina Napolitano. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online: http://www. biographi. ca/index-e. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. [ 6 ]. Angelina Napolitano. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online: http://www. biographi. ca/index-e. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. [ 7 ]. Angelina Napolitano. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online: http://www. biographi. ca/index-e. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. [ 8 ]. Claude Jones, Center on Wrongful Convictions. http://www. law. northwestern. edu/cwc/issues/wrongfulexecutions/txjonescsummary. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. 9 ]. Claude Jones, Center on Wrongful Convictions. http://www. law. northwestern. edu/cwc/issues/wrongfulexecutions/txjonescsummary. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. [ 10 ]. Crime Museum. http://www. crimemuseum. org/library/execution/wrongfulExecution. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. [ 11 ]. Crime Museum. http://www. crimemuseum. org/library/execution/wrongfulExecution. html. Date of access, July 9, 201 2. [ 12 ]. Crime Museum. http://www. crimemuseum. org/library/execution/wrongfulExecution. html. Date of access, July 9, 2012. [ 13 ]. Crime Museum. How to cite To Kill or Not to Kill, Essay examples

Red Tacton Essay Example

Red Tacton Essay Chapter 3: The Shooting Modes U ntil now I have discussed the basics of setting up the camera for quick shots, relying heavily on features such as AUTO mode to take pictures whose settings are controlled mostly by the camera’s automation. As with other sophisticated digital cameras, though, with the PowerShot S100 there is a large range of options available for setting the camera, particularly for taking still images. One of the main goals of this book is to explain the broad range of features available.To do this, we need to turn our attention to two subjects—shooting modes and the Shooting menu options. First, I’ll discuss the shooting modes. Whenever you set out to record still images, you need to select one of the available shooting modes: AUTO, Program, Shutter Priority, Aperture Priority, Manual, Scene, Creative Filters, or Custom. (The only other mode available is for movies. ) So far, we have worked with the AUTO and Program modes. Now we will look at the others, after some review of the first two.AUTO Mode I’ve already discussed this shooting mode. This is the one you probably want to select if you just need to have the camera ready for a quick shot, maybe in an environment with fast-paced events when you won’t have much time to fuss with settings of things such as ISO, white balance, aperture, or shutter speed. To set this mode, turn the mode dial, on top of the camera 47 PHOTOGRAPHER’S GUIDE TO THE CANON POWERSHOT S100 to the right of the shutter button, to the green label with the word â€Å"AUTO† in it.When you select this mode, the camera makes quite a few decisions for you and limits your options in several ways. For example, you can’t set ISO or white balance to any value other than Auto, and you can’t choose the metering method or use exposure bracketing. You can, however, use Tracking AF, which is discussed in Chapter 4. To turn on that feature in AUTO mode, just press the exposure compensation button (top direction button) once. The inability to set white balance in AUTO mode can present a problem for certain types of shooting.In my experience, the PowerShot S100’s Auto White Balance setting does not do well with tungsten lighting. When I shoot with tungsten light bulbs illuminating a subject indoors, I have found that the Auto White Balance setting is considerably different than the Tungsten setting, which is available only if I switch to a shooting mode such as Program or Aperture Priority. So, if you need to shoot indoors under artificial light of this sort, you may want to avoid using AUTO mode. If you use flash or another daylight-balanced light source, there should not be a problem, because the Auto White Balance setting does well with flash and daylight. ) Perhaps most important, in AUTO mode you cannot select RAW for the image quality setting, which is set automatically to JPEG. I’ll discuss RAW later, in Chapter 4, but if you want to h ave the highest possible quality of images or intend to process them using one of the more sophisticated photo editing programs, like Adobe Photoshop, you won’t like having to do without the RAW quality setting.One interesting aspect of AUTO mode is that, in this mode, the camera uses its built-in programming to attempt to figure out what sort of subject or scene you are shooting. (See the chart of icons displayed and what they mean at page 206 of the Canon user’s manual. ) So, if you see different icons, or the AUTO icon with different-colored backgrounds, that means 48 CHAPTER 3: THE SHOOTING MODES that the camera is evaluating the scene for factors such as brightness, backlighting, the presence of human subjects, and the like, so it can use the best possible settings for the situation.For the image on the left above, the camera used its generic AUTO setting, while, for the one on the right, where the subject was closer to the lens, the camera interpreted the scene a s a macro, or closeup shot, and switched automatically into Macro mode, indicated by the flower icon. At other times, the camera may decide that the subject is a backlit human, a human in a spotlight, or a sunset. (It’s interesting to note that the camera does not have a dedicated â€Å"sunset† setting as a Scene type that you can select; but, f you want the camera to use good settings for a sunset scene, you can try using AUTO mode, and the camera presumably will attempt to set itself so as to optimize the scene, by emphasizing reddish hues, for example. ) Program Mode Choose this mode by turning the mode dial to the P setting. Program mode lets you control many of the settings available with the camera, apart from shutter speed and aperture. (You still can override the camera’s automatic exposure to a fair extent, by using exposure compensation, as discussed in Chapter 2, as well as exposure bracketing, discussed in Chapter 4, and Program Shift, discussed in C hapter 5. You don’t have to make a lot of decisions if you don’t want to, though, because the camera will make reasonable choices for you as defaults. However, you 49 PHOTOGRAPHER’S GUIDE TO THE CANON POWERSHOT S100 should note that, even though shutter speeds as slow as 15 seconds are available in Shutter Priority and Manual exposure mode, the camera will never choose a shutter speed longer than one second in Program mode. One way to look at Program mode is that it greatly expands the choices available through the Shooting menu and the Function menu.You will be able to make choices involving picture quality, image stabilization, ISO sensitivity, metering method, and others. I won’t discuss all of those choices here; if you want to explore that topic, go to the discussions of the Function menu and the Shooting menu in Chapter 4 and check out all of the different selections that are available. It is worth mentioning here that Program mode has the great adv antage of letting you choose RAW quality for your still images. To do that, activate the Function menu by pressing the Func. /Set button in the center of the control dial.Using the up and down direction buttons, navigate down to the third-tobottom item on the list of icons on the left side of the screen. Then use the right button or the control dial to select RAW from the list on the bottom of the screen, as opposed to JPEG. (JPEG stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, an industry group that sets standards for photographic file formats. ) Or, if you prefer, select RAW+JPEG. With that setting, the camera actually records two images as noted, so you will have both the RAW and the non-RAW (JPEG) image available.This choice can be useful if you won’t have immediate access to software for editing the RAW images, and want to be able to use the lesser-quality images quickly. Aperture Priority Mode You set the camera to the Aperture Priority shooting mode by turning the mode di al to the Av setting; the Av stands for Aperture value. Before discussing the nuts and bolts of the settings for this mode, let’s talk about 50 CHAPTER 3: THE SHOOTING MODES what aperture is and why you would want to control it. The camera’s aperture is a measure of the width of its opening that lets in light.The aperture’s width is measured numerically in f-stops. For the PowerShot S100, the range of f-stops is from f/2. 0 (wide open) to f/8. 0 (most narrow). The amount of light that is let into the camera to create an image on the camera’s sensor is controlled by the combination of aperture (how wide open the lens is) and shutter speed (how long the shutter remains open to let in the light). For some purposes, you may want to control the width of the aperture but still let the camera choose the corresponding shutter speed. Here are a couple of examples involving depth of field.Depth of field is a measure of how well a camera is able to keep multiple obj ects or subjects in focus at different distances (focal lengths). For example, say you have three of your friends lined up so you can see all of them, but they are standing at different distances—five, seven, and nine feet (1. 5, 2. 1, and 2. 7 meters) from the camera. If the camera’s depth of field is quite shallow at a particular focal length, such as five feet (1. 5 meters), then, in this case, if you focus on the friend at that distance, the other two will be out of focus and blurry.But if the camera’s depth of field when focused at five feet is broad, then it may be possible for all three friends to be in sharp focus in your photograph, even if the focus is set for the friend at five feet. What does all of that have to do with aperture? One of the rules of photographic optics is that the wider open the camera’s aperture is, the smaller its depth of field is at a given focal length. So in our example above, if you have the camera’s aperture set to its widest opening, f/2. 0, the depth of field will be relatively small, and it will be possible to keep fewer items in focus at varying distances from the camera.If the aperture is set to the narrowest opening, f/8. 0, the depth of field will be greater, and it will be possible to have more items in focus at varying distances. 51 PHOTOGRAPHER’S GUIDE TO THE CANON POWERSHOT S100 With a camera like the PowerShot S100, with its relatively small sensor and wide-angle lens, the effects of aperture on depth of field are not as pronounced as with some other cameras. However, the following images generally illustrate the effects of aperture settings on depth of field, using a model car, model truck, and automotive sign as subjects. 52 CHAPTER 3: THE SHOOTING MODESIn these photos, the car was about 16 inches (35. 5 cm) from the S100’s lens, with the truck at 4 feet 4 inches (132 cm) and the sign at 10 feet 10 inches (3. 3 m). In all three cases, focus was set on the car. F or the first image, at the top, the aperture of the S100 was f/2. 0, the widest possible. With this setting, much of the image is out of focus, because the depth of field at this aperture was quite narrow, and the truck and sign were outside of the range of sharp focus. The second image was taken with the aperture set to f/2. 8, resulting in a broader depth of field, and consequently more of the image is in focus.The final image was taken with the aperture set to f/5. 6. These photos should illustrate fairly clearly the advantage of â€Å"stopping down† to a narrow aperture such as f/5. 6 or even f/8. 0 when you want to enjoy a broad depth of field and keep as many subjects as possible in sharp focus. In practical terms, if you want to have the sharpest picture possible, especially when you have subjects at varying distances from the lens and you want them to be in focus to the greatest extent possible, then you may want to control the aperture, and make sure it is set to the highest number (narrowest opening) possible.On the other hand, there are occasions when photographers prize a narrow depth of field. This situation arises often in the case of outdoor portraits. For example, you may want to take a photo of a subject outdoors with a background of trees and bushes, and possibly some other, more distracting objects, such as a swing set or a tool shed. If you can achieve a narrow depth of field, you can keep your subject in sharp focus, but leave the background quite blurry and indistinct.This effect is sometimes called â€Å"bokeh,† a Japanese term describing an aesthetically pleasing blurriness of the background. You have undoubtedly seen images using this effect. In this situation, the blurriness of the background can be a great asset, reducing the distraction from unwanted objects and highlighting the sharply focused portrait of your subject. In the next example I 53

How Societ Influences Gender Identity Essays

How Societ Influences Gender Identity Essays How Societ Influences Gender Identity Essay How Societ Influences Gender Identity Essay The impact of social and cultural norms on the way an adolescent shapes and perceives identity has come under greater scrutiny in recent years. Although societies differ in the specific nature of the attributes associated with maleness and femaleness, each society attempts to communicate the gender norms to children and adolescents through various mechanisms. Acculturated gender roles have a significant influence on the way parents rear children, which impacts the way the children view themselves. A conflict between the external societal role assigned to an adolescent based on biological gender and the internal gender identity formed by the adolescent can have negative consequences for psychological health. Gender identity involves the fundamental sense of belonging to a gender as defined by societal norms, which may be different from the biological sex of the individual (Vasey Bartlett, 2007). While most adolescents have a gender identity based on their biological sex, many have a strong psychological identification with the opposite biological sex and may desire to become a member of the opposite sex. If the identification with the opposite sex and the desire to become a member of the opposite sex causes significant psychological distress, it is considered a gender identity disorder (GID) based on the criteria in the DSM-IV. In this construct, the identification with the opposite sex is not in itself a disorder, and must be the source of significant distress sufficient to interfere with life activities. Various factors can influence the development of gender identity among children and adolescents, including parental behaviors and norms, peer norms, and the depiction of the gender roles traditional in the society in various types of media. The cognitive perspective of the development of gender identity suggests that information received from external sources contributes to the formation of gender identity. The amount and quality of the information influences the gender schema of the individual, which is the internal cognitive network that organizes and guides individual perceptions about the attributes associated with masculinity and femininity. The schema is influenced by socialization processes and the feedback received from role models in the dolescents environment. In this context, the cognitive processing of information leads adolescents to choose as an organizing principle for their behavior and to interpret the behavior of others. Based on the cognitive perspective of development of gender identity among adolescents, the following research will test three hypotheses. The first hypothesis stated in its alternate form is: Some variations about the conception of sexuality and gender identity are culturally specific . This hypothesis is based on the assumption that some standards of the concept of masculinity and femininity may correlate in all societies, but each society makes adaptations to the standards that are culturally specific. The second hypothesis of the study stated in its alternative form is: Parents influence the development of gender identity through the way they allow children to participate in gender-specific play and the toys they permit the children to use in play. This hypothesis is based on the assumption that parents transmit information to children about socially accepted gender roles, with the adolescent influenced by the information acquired during earlier stages of development. The third hypothesis of the study is: Media has the greatest influence in the transmission of information about social norms related to gender to the individual. The hypothesis is based on the assumption that adolescents are significant consumers of media in various forms. Evidence from research indicates that adolescents draw from popular culture to construct their identities, which includes gender identity (Wright, 2007). As a result, the information embedded in media about gender norms and stereotypes can have a significant influence on the development of gender identity during adolescence by communicating societal values and norms with respect to behavior expected from males and females. Case Study (Person Whom I Know) Samantha, who uses the nickname Sam, is a female aged 14 who is considered a tomboy by her parents and peers. She tends to dress in male clothing and engage in activities that are stereotypically male such as contact sports and playing action video games. She also watches television for two to three hours a day and frequently attends movies, usually alone. While she wears a stereotypically female hair style, it is cut relatively short. She is academically bright and intends to enter college after she completes high school. She is sexually attracted to boys her age, but conceals her feelings because she is concerned about rejection. She is socially ostracized by the females in her peer group and is often the object of negative comments about her behavior and sexuality. As a result, she has engaged in physical fights with some of her female peers. At the same time, she is not fully accepted by males in her age group as a peer because of their awareness that she is a female. Her parents encourage her to dress in more traditionally female clothing, which she resists. They also attempted to ensure that she had only the toys they deemed appropriate for a girl when she was a child. Although they continuously encourage her to be more feminine, they assume that she will eventually outgrow the behaviors they consider inappropriate for an adolescent girl. As a result, Sam does not discuss her problems with her parents because she believes it will inevitably lead to criticism of her behaviors. Literature Review Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008) investigated the influence of teen movies on the development of gender-based beliefs about friendships, social aggression and the roles of women in society. The research was based on Banduras social cognitive theory, which postulates that the media is a significant source for the acquisition of gender-linked knowledge. The social cognitive theory functionally uses a constructivism paradigm by suggesting that individuals cognitively create a self-identity construct based on information obtained from other social actors. In effect, a medium such as film contains information about societal expectations concerning roles and conduct for the genders and standards that individuals use for self-evaluation and the evaluation of others. The study focused on the depiction of the mean girl in teenage film, which involves a teenage female social circle dominated by a girl who is tyrannical and bullying. The social circle emphasizes a caste system, with outsiders the target of the bullying. The research examined the content of 20 teenage films using university students as coders. The findings of Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008) determined that female characters in the films were more likely to engage in socially aggressive behavior than male characters. In addition, females were more likely than males to be rewarded for engaging in socially aggressive behaviors. When the films depicted socially cooperative behaviors, however, no differences between the genders existed, with both genders equally rewarded for engaging in these types of behaviors. The findings supported the conclusion that exposure to these messages embedded in the film media could encourage the development of negative beliefs about the value of female friendships and poor attitudes towards women in general. The films also convey the message to adolescents that aggressive behavior is an acceptable method for achieving higher social status and other rewards. Because the article uses the social cognitive theory, it assumes that gender identity is a social construct with adolescents adopting the behaviors they perceive to be the norm based on their gender identity. It does not, however, discuss the implications for the media message for adolescents who do not accept the gender norms. The Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008) article has the highest priority in terms of relevance for Sam. Because Sam frequently watches movies and television, she is likely to have encountered the media construct of the mean girl. Sam may find the construct unpleasant because it depicts adolescent females as tyrannical and bullying. To some degree, this may account for her reluctance to engage in the stereotypical behaviors expected of a adolescent girl. To fully adopt the gender identity of a female would require that she participate in the social activities that involve dominance by a mean girl and bullying of other girls not within the social circle. As a result, she pursues male friendships, although these friendships may not meet her full range of needs for peer interactions. She may expect a reward from socially cooperative behavior with males in the form of peer friendships. Another aspect of Sams behavior that may be influenced by the media is physical fighting with other girls when they behave in a derogatory or demeaning manner towards her. Although she does not fully formed a stereotypical female gender identity, she is aware that she is biologically female. In the teen movies, females are rewarded for socially aggressive behavior, which sometimes includes fighting with other females. As a result, she may believe that it the use of aggression toward other females will bring a reward while the use of cooperation with males will bring a reward. Wright (2007) investigated whether adolescents with gender identity uncertainty are attracted to media depictions of individuals who do not conform to traditional gender stereotypes. This research was based on both the essentialism and constructivism paradigms. The research assumed that male-to-female transgendered individuals were biologically influenced to adopt a female gender identity. At the same time, these individuals had to develop a social construct derived from the norms and values of a subculture in which transgendered individuals were accepted. The research relied on interviews with adult transgendered individuals that had been adolescents in the 1960s. The focus of the research was the influence of a female television character in the television show The Avengers on male adolescents of the period that subsequently became trans-women. The female character in this show exhibited qualities that were considered masculine at the time by using physical strength and intelligence as well as rescuing her male partner from danger. The author noted that the role was originally intended for a man, with a woman subsequently cast in the show. Wrights (2007) findings indicated that the subjects used the female character as a role model to construct a gender identity that blended some aspects of male and female stereotypes during adolescence. The subjects of the study were biologically male and had some of the physical strength and intelligence associated with the male stereotypes of the period. The character in the television show demonstrated these male attributes, but also exhibited the stereotypically feminine attributes of attractiveness and sexuality. The findings also indicated that the video tapes of the old television show are used among modern adolescents who are male-to-female transgendered to provide a female role model that has some male attributes. This finding suggests that the attributes of the media character remain relevant for adolescents experiencing difficulty developing a gender identity. The findings also noted that the individual subjects were rejected by their parents for failing to conform to gender norms in the society, which led them to rely on media representations to develop an understanding of their position in society. The research findings imply that adolescents with gender identity conflicts search popular media to find role models that allow them to construct a gender identity that feels appropriate. It also implies that the media sometimes provides social constructs concerning gender roles and attributes that differ substantially from the stereotypical norms. The research conducted by Wright (2007) has the second highest priority of relevance for Sam because it indicates that the media contextualizes the experiences of adolescents. Sam watches an extensive amount of television and attends movies, and presumably has favorite characters or stories that she perceives as relevant for her situation. Many of the modern female media characters outside of teen movies may display non-stereotypical attributes that Sam may find relevant. By seeking out media characters or stories with female characters with blended male and female attributes, she may be validating her gender identity that is neither stereotypically male or female. From this perspective, the media has an influence on her gender identity by confirming that she need not adopt the stereotypical role and attributes of a female to obtain rewards or to be successful. Miller and Sommers (2007) investigated depiction of males and females in video games targeted to the adolescent market. The research was based on the environmentalism paradigm in which the media functions as a social influence by depicting the norms and standards expected by society. The theoretical premise was that the media representation informed adolescents about the attributes that are socially desirable for each gender, with adolescents failing to conform to the representation feeling inadequate. The research method used content analysis of video game magazines to determine the way in which the games portray male and female characters. Video games may have a more significant influence on adolescents than other types of media because of the high degree of engagement when playing the game and the repetitive nature of the activity. In effect, the adolescent player is more susceptible to influences form the embedded messages in the game content such as the appropriate behaviors of males and females. Miller and Sommers (2007) found that male figures are heroic and physically powerful in video games while females are secondary characters that are sexualized through their appearance and attire. In some games with more mature themes, the females are sex objects whose sole function is to provide an objective for the male hero to achieve. Male characters also have a wider range of skills and abilities than female characters in the games, including games in which female characters can behave as leaders or heroes. Although both adolescent males and adolescent females play video games, the industry primarily targets the male market, which may account for the general weakness of the female characters in the games. In the games analyzed in the study, male characters were five times more likely to be included in a game than female characters. The video games appear to endorse the gender stereotypes by creating an unrealistic image of masculinity and femininity, which can influence gender identity if individual adolescents do not believe they conform to the image. The research conducted by Miller and Sommers (2007) has the third priority in relevance to Sams situation. Sam plays video games, primarily with her male companions. At the same time, her parents are not fully aware of her preferences in video games and assume that she only plays games they would consider appropriate for young girls. As a result, she is likely to play games intended for male adolescents in which the male characters are heroic and skillful while the female characters are passive and sexualized. During the process of play, she receives the embedded information about the stereotypical behavior of males and females, and considers the male role as more attractive than the female role. The play of the video game may influence her to adopt a male role in the game, which reinforces her gender identity ambivalence. Vasey and Bartlett (2007) conducted research among Samoans to determine whether the criteria for GID was valid in non-Western societies. Samoan culture has a high degree of social tolerance for feminine males known as faafafine. The purpose of the research was to determine whether the identification with the opposite biological sex and engaging in behaviors associated with the opposite sex inherently cause psychological distress. The research was based on an environmentalism perspective in which social influences contribute to the formation of gender identity by either encouraging or discouraging the behaviors that the society deems appropriate or inappropriate for the gender of the individual. The methodology used by Vasey and Bartlett (2007)involved interviewing adult faafafine to determine if they experienced cross-gender identification in childhood and adolescence, and if they experienced distress because of their gender identification. The findings indicated that the subjects did not experience distress concerning their gender identity because their more feminine attributes were considered acceptable in Samoan society. The findings also determined that parents did not discourage the subjects from adopting the gender identity of the faafafine, and therefore were not a source of psychological distress because of the failure of the individual to meet parental expectations of appropriate behavior based on biological sex. The findings also suggested that the Samoan culture considered females more nurturing and males more protective, which may be cross-cultural gender attributes. The conclusions reached by the authors was that the GID diagnosis should be removed from the DSM-IV because the psychological distress related to gender identity is created by the societal norms and expectations in Western culture and is not inherent to gender identity. While the article examined social influences leading to psychological distress, it did not explore the reasons why the faafafine males identified with the female gender. The Vasey and Bartlett (2007) article has the third highest priority for Sams situation. The findings and conclusion of the article suggest that the individual selects a gender identity with the degree of distress resulting from the selection dependent on the gender norms and stereotypes of the society. Sam is experiencing some psychological distress because of her gender identity that has attributes associated with both males and females in Western society. She has difficulty forming friendships with males and females in her peer group. Although the distress does not appear to be affecting her academic achievement, it appears to be interfering with her social development. Her parents express disapproval of her behavior and attire based on their concepts of behavior and attire appropriate for the female gender. The parents, however, have not been effective in influencing Sam to adopt the stereotypical behavior associated with a young female. This suggests that factors other parental role modeling and influences affect the development of gender identity among adolescents. Conclusion The research provides support for accepting the first hypothesis of the study in its alternative form: Some variations about the conception of sexuality and gender identity are culturally specific. Vesey and Bartlett (2007) determined that the concept of the feminine male is more socially acceptable in Samoan culture than in Western cultures. In addition, psychological distress created by gender identity that differs from norms is not considered a disorder in Samoan culture. This suggests that aspects of the concepts about sexuality and gender are culturally specific constructs that can vary significant in different societies. The research provides some support for accepting the second hypothesis of the study in its alternative form: Parents influence the development of gender identity through the way they allow children to participate in gender-specific play and the toys they permit the children to use in play. The research conducted by Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008) as well as Miller and Sommers (2007) suggests that parents cannot fully control the media selection choices of their children. The inability to control play is particularly apparent in adolescence when the child has greater autonomy in the selection of media and video games, which are analogous to toys. The findings provide support for accepting the third hypothesis of the study in its alternative form: Media has the greatest influence in the transmission of information about social norms related to gender to the individual. The findings of Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008), Miller and Sommers (2007), and Wright (2007) indicate that media has a significant influence on the formation of gender identity among adolescents. Media conveys information about gender stereotypes and the norm expectation of society, which adolescents compare to their actual experience. Media also has a significant influence on adolescents because they are significant consumers of media products and have not yet developed the ability to discriminate among different types of media messages. As a result, media plays a substantial role in the development of gender identity in adolescence. Bibliography Behm-Morawitz, E. Mastro, D. E. (2008). Mean girls? The influence of gender portrayals in teen movies on emerging adults gender-based attitudes and beliefs. Journalism and Mass Communications Quarterly, 85(1), 131-146. The research discussed in this article used a social cognitive theory framework to examine the effect of gender portrayals in teen movies on beliefs among adolescents about friendships, aggression, and the role of women in society. The findings of the study indicated that the content of the films has a significant influence on the beliefs of adolescents about the societal norms associated with gender. The findings also indicated that the films depicted women as achieving success in the female social world only through the use of duplicitous methods. If female adolescents form their social constructs about feminine behavior from teen movies, they are more likely to engage in aggressive social behavior. Miller, M. Sommers, A. (2007). Gender differences in video game characters roles, appearances and attire as portrayed in video game magazines. Sex Roles, 57, 733-742. This article describes research by the authors investigating the portrayal of male and female roles in video game magazines, which are a significant social influence on adolescents. The research adopted an environmentalism perspective by assuming that media is a significant influence on adolescents in developmental processes by communicating the societal expectations of gender roles. In the video game context, males were heroes, physically powerful and capable of using weapons. In contrast, females were secondary characters that were sexual yet innocent, and were portrayed as wearing more revealing clothing. Wright, R. (2007). Learning empowerment, resistance and female identity development from popular television: Trans-women tell stories of trans-formation. In Servage, L. Fenwick, T. (Eds. ) Learning in community: Proceedings of the joint international conference of the Adult Education Research Conference. Halifax: Mount Saint Vincent University. This article adopts a constructivist perspective for research examining the use of a female character in a television show as a role model by male-to-female transgendered individuals. The television show aired when the individuals were adolescents, with the female character blending stereotypical male and female attributes. Although the television show was aired forty years ago, it continues to be viewed by male adolescents with gender identity issues. Vasey, P. L. Bartlett, N. H. (2007). What can the Samoan Faafafine teach us about the Western concept of gender identity disorder in childhood? Perspectives in biology and Medicine, 50(4), 481-490. This article adopted a constructivism perspective for an investigation of whether the DSM-IV gender identity disorder in childhood constitutes a mental disorder when the criteria are applied to individuals in non-Western cultures. The research investigated the high degree of social tolerance towards feminine males in Samoan culture known as faafafine. The findings of the research indicated that gender-atypical identity and behavior do not inherently lead to distress when controlling for societal intolerance toward these individuals. The findings also indicated that parental discouragement of gender atypical behaviors increases the distress of the individual because of the conflict it creates between the individuals inclinations and the expectations of parents.

APA Thesis

APA Thesis APA Thesis APA ThesisIf you have an assignment to write an APA thesis, you should start with conducting a sufficient research. APA thesis writing is not easy, especially if you have no research skills while the assignment deadline is approaching very quickly. This article is written with the purpose to give you several tips on APA thesis formatting. APA Thesis TipsAPA thesis must be composed in Standard American English, and papers set up as 8 x 11 documents, double-spaced, in 12-point type legible font (such as Times New Roman, Arial, or Georgia), or in 10- or 11-point legible font (such as Verdana) with 1-inch margins. Thesis should to be formatted in APA style (see A Writers Reference, APA/CMS tab) and apastyle.org/ (This site is devoted to APA Style and includes free style tips and excerpts from the 5th edition of the APA Publication Manual). Some other helpful links are: APA Formatting and Style Guide (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/) and APA Overview and Works hop (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/664/01/) Sources are to be noted and documented in APA style only, using parenthetical references, and verified in an accurate Reference page. Do not use MLA or End Note style! Final thesis that is not correctly documented with an accurate Reference page, and with parenthetical references within the paper that connect to sources on the Reference page will receive a failing grade. Use only the third person (he/she/it and they) in all writing assignments for this class. Follow the specific Resource for all other class writing assignments. First voice (I/we) and second voice (you) is not used in academic writing. Exceptions are when first or second voice is part of a quote or necessary dialogue. This link may provide more information on the subject: Using Appropriate Language Use an appropriate formal style and voice for academic writing. Contractions (cant, isnt, wont, etc.) may work in less formal non-academic pieces, but are not acceptable in academic writing. This link may prove helpful: Using Appropriate Language (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/608/01/) Thesis writer should avoid most errors in grammar and mechanics (spelling, punctuation, etc.). It is suggested that writers review any grammar/correction/mechanics weaknesses in the text A Writers Reference and the accompanying exercise book before and during the proof-reading/editing of a thesis. A final essay with more than three errors on a page will be limited to a grade of C or less. Writers should proofread all writing carefully before turning in an assignment of any kind. Writers are encouraged to review all stages of the writing with computer spelling and grammar check. APA Thesis: Final NotesResearch and note-taking are integral absolutes of academic writing. No matter how knowledgeable you think you are about a subject, your thesis will benefit from your reading and applying information from other credible sources . This is a very important pre-writing/planning part of the Writing Process. Research and responsible documentation crediting the research in your thesis are essential to academic writing. You should not turn in a Final Copy of an Essay for any class unless you have applied research to the subject matter/contents, cited the research correctly (APA Style) in your thesis, and included a Reference page (APA Style) that lists all sources that were used (and cited) in the thesis.

HIV Infected Mothers Having Babies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

HIV Infected Mothers Having Babies - Essay Example Because more women are infected with HIV, there is dilemma for public servants in helping HIV positive mothers have babies. Some believe HIV positive women should not have babies at all. Others would rather not see babies Born to HIV mothers become infected, but realize that as human beings those women wish to have normal family lives as others do. For some women, the idea of having a baby with a positive HIV status is unthinkable. They would not want to take the risk of transmitting the virus to the baby. They also may fear that spouses or other family members would not want to care for an HIV positive baby after the mother’s death. Other women believe having a baby where there is a high risk of birth defects is ok, but not having a baby that might get the HIV virus. Personal views stem from socially acceptable norms that accept babies with birth defects more than those with HIV. Other women believe that regardless of the risks, they have a right to bear children and have a f amily just as much as the next woman. Women in the United States are not prohibited from having babies when they are HIV positive. Interestingly, in Botswana some officials discourage women with HIV from having babies â€Å"claiming that they are not fit to take care of a child or that they will automatically transmit the virus to the infant† (Doyle). Women are often shunned by locals who know they have the virus, when they decide to have children. This is surprising as infants are more likely to die in their first year of life due to unsanitary water and poor nutrition.

How does historial perspective enhance our understanding of childhood Essay

How does historial perspective enhance our understanding of childhood in the present - Essay Example Regardless of the definitions, both from past and present, children must be under care of an adult with the law giving them minimal rights as well as restrictions. The legal aspect of childhood has extended the range of childhood as viewed in the society. That is if today’s childhood is defined as the young age that is managed by a responsible adult, the age might spill over to early twenties given that majority of the youth are still in college at this age. Childhood has been marked as completely different from adulthood, both in character, decision making and activity. This recognition first appeared in literature in 16th century and has since then been adopted and improved. The argument formulated then, that still holds today is that childhood is an immature stage of life, characterized by underdevelopment t both mentally and physically. And it’s on this basis that every action undertaken by a child should be manned closely by not only and adult but a responsible adu lt. The modern child has really changed as adults are taking childhood in a different perspective. Whilst in the early stages a normal child enjoys living with her parents, school has been made another home for a child, where many children are let to grow together, under the guidance of an instructor. Requirements are that unlike in the past where a child was to be transformed to a cultural adult, learning to do exactly what her parents have doing, the modern child is given the opportunity to develop his or her own skills based on talent and preference and capability. As evident in today’s generation, a doctor’s child can join a completely different profession such as engineering this being just an example. As noted earlier, childhood marks the development stages of a person and thus needs be handled intelligently to ensure success of that child in future. The modern setting of child completely differs from the past. The responsibility of rearing a child mentally has b een laid to a tutor who handles children of different personalities, unlike in the past where the parent dealt with almost homogeneous sons and daughters, living close to their relatives. This calls for the tutor to understand the present setting. Historical perspective is of great help but it requires the tutor, who is responsible for the child’s action, be able to analyze the importance historical lineage to present situation. A basic historical concept that deems necessary to the modern situation is the stage theory. Stage theory is based on the arguments of Jean Piaget that each child portrays some un9iversal characteristics in development regardless of the social backup. In generalizing the minds capability and intentions of all children, the tutor can easily administer general guidelines to the children. Jean formulated three basic ideas in t in the theory of cognitive development. To jean, childhood is made up of two stages; preoperational and concrete operational, wit h the former laying foundation to the latter and the latter forming the basis of adulthood. In the concrete stage, Jean portrayed the child as an active learner trying to experiment everything they think or hear of. The stages being interrelated shows a rigid nature of a child that could be characterized by resistance to change. However the modern child is very reactive to environment and gets easily influenced making him very flexible. Thus whereas

The Journey of Lily in Sue Monk Kidds The Secret Life of Bees Essay

The Journey of Lily in Sue Monk Kidd's The Secret Life of Bees The devastating tragedy of losing a person's mother at an early age can drastically affect that person's life. It can impact the way someone thinks, corresponds with others, and the way someone handles themselves emotionally. In the novel The Secret Life of Bees Lily Owens loses her mother at the early age of four. During Lily's journey she finds comfort and support in the women that she meets. Throughout the novel Lily goes through many changes because of the impact of the motherly figures of the Black Mary, Rosaleen, and the Calendar Sisters. During Lily's journey the Black Mary helps change Lily's life by providing structure. The ritual of the Calendar Sisters, Rosaleen, and Lily praying before the Black Mary everyday provides Lily with time to focus on her emotions and thoughts. Structure gives Lily a routine with helps her stay organized. "'I reached out and traced Black Mary's heart with my finger'" (Monk Kidd 164). Lily is able to touch the Black Mary on her second attempt. This gives Lily as physical connection to the Black Mary, which she never had with her real mother. The Black Mary acts like a silent mother towards Lily because Lily can connect with the Black Mary physically, but not as much socially. Lily can relate to the Black Mary socially but only through prayer, which is not as strong of a connection as the physical aspect. After Lily learns about the stories that tell the Black Mary's past, she can relate to the Black Mary even more. "'You know, she's really just the figurehead off an old ship, b ut the people needed comfort and rescue, so when they looked at it, they saw Mary, and so the spirit of Mary took over'" (141). When L... ... (243). Lily received a lot of love that gave her hope and made her feel good about herself. Instead of having one mother, Lily had three. Which she felt was the best thing for her. "All these mothers. I have more mothers than eight girls off the street. They are the moons shining over me" (302). Through Lily's life journeys and lessons she learns to appreciate the small things in life and thank those who care. The impact of the Black Mary, Rosaleen and the Calendar Sisters help Lily go through positive changes. Even though Lily lost her mother at an early age, she still had the opportunity to have a great life. Lily was lucky to have the love and support of the many women that are in her life. Lily had a great life and fit into the African American culture perfectly. Works Cited: Kidd, Sue Monk. The Secret Life of Bees. New York: Penguin, 2002.

Statistics Course Notes

†¢ Defining What Statistics Really Is 1. 1 Nature of Statistics The term â€Å"Statistics† came from the Latin word ‘status’ which could be translated as ‘state’. The usage of this term only became popular during the 18 th century where they defined Statistics as â€Å"the science of dealing with data about the condition of a state or community†. The practice of statistics could be traced back even from the early biblical times where they gather figures related to governance of the state for they realized the importance of these figures in governing the people.Even until today, worldwide, governments have intensified their data gathering and even widen the scope of their numerical figures due to the rise of more cost-efficient methods for collecting data. Some of the most popular figures that are being released by almost all countries are Gross National Product (GNP), Birth rates, Mortality Rates, Unemployment Rate, Literacy Rates and Fore ign Currency Exchange Rates. Also, the use of Statistics is not limited to government use only. Right now, almost all business sectors and fields of study use statistics.Statistics serves as the guiding principle in their decision making and helps them come up with sound actions as supported by the analysis done in their available information. Indicated below are some of the uses of Statistics in various fields: Medicine: Medical Researchers use statistics in testing the feasibility or even the efficacy of newly developed drugs. Statistics is also used to understand the spread of the disease and study their prevention, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment (Epidemiology).JDEUSTAQUIO 1 Economics: Statistics aids Economists analyze international and local markets by estimating some Key Performance Indicators (KPI) such as unemployment rate, GNP/GDP, amount of exports and imports. It is also used to forecast economic fluctuations and trends. Market Research: derives statistics by conducti ng surveys and coming up decisions from these statistics through feasibility studies or for testing the marketability of a new product.Manufacturing: use statistics to assure the quality of their products through the use of sampling and testing some of their outputs Accounting/Auditing: uses sampling techniques in statistics to examine and check their financial books. Education: Educators use statistical methods to determine the validity and reliability of their testing procedures and evaluating the performance of teachers and students. 1. 2 Basic Concepts We normally hear the word â€Å"statistics† when people are talking about basketball or the vital statistics of beauty contestants.In this context the word â€Å"statistics† is used in the plural form which simply means a numerical figure. But the field of Statistics is not only limited to these simple figures and archiving them. In the context of this course, the definition of â€Å"Statistics† is mainly abou t the study of the theory and applications of the scientific methods dealing all about the data and making sound decisions on this. Statistics is the branch of science that deals with the collection, presentation, organization, analysis and interpretation of data. Sometimes, gathering the entire collection of elements is very tedious, expensive or even timeconsuming.Because of this data gatherers sometimes resort to collecting just a portion of the entire collection of elements. The term coined for the entire collection of elements is called Population while the subset of the population is referred as the Sample. JDEUSTAQUIO 2 Population is the collection of all elements under consideration in a statistical inquiry while the sample is a subset of a population. THINK: Could you say that the entire population is also a sample? The specification of the population of interest depends upon the scope of the study.Let’s say that if we wish to know the average expenditure of all hous eholds in Metro Manila, then the population of interest is the collection of all households in Metro Manila. If there is a need to delimit the scope of the study due to some constraints, we could redefine the population of interest. We could delimit the scope of the study to only specific city in Metro Manila. With this the study would only include the collection of all households in ________ City. The elements of the population is not only limited to individuals, it can be objects, animals, geographical areas, in other words, almost anything.Some examples of possible populations are: the set of laborers in a certain manufacturing plant, the set of foreigners residing on Boracay for a certain day, set of Ford Fiesta produced in the entire Philippines on a month. In any studies involving the use of Statistics, there would be at least one attribute of the element in the population which we would be studying. This attribute or characteristic is what we call variable. Just like in the f ield of Mathematics, we normally denote a variable with a single capital letter i. e. A, X, Z.The variable is a characteristic or attribute of the elements in a collection that can assume different values for the different elements. While an observation is a realized value of the variable, and the collection of these observations is called the data. Example: The Department of Health is interested in determining the percentage of children below 12 years old infected by the Hepatitis B virus in Metro Manila in 2006. Population: Set of all children below 12 years old in Metro Manila in 2006 Variable of Interest: whether or not the child has ever been infected by the Hepatitis B virus.Possible Observations: Infected, Never Infected Regardless of whether every element of the data on the population or sample is used, it is often still difficult to convey meaning to these observations is not summarized. This is the JDEUSTAQUIO 3 reason why it is important to condense these observations to a single figure to completely describe the entire data. This condensed value is what we call summary measure. The parameter is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of a population while a statistic is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of the sample. . 3 Fields of Statistics There are two major fields in Statistics. The first one is (i) Applied Statistics, this deals mainly with the procedures and techniques used in the collection, presentation, organization, analysis and interpretation of data. On the other hand, the second one is (ii) Mathematical Statistics, which is concerned with the development of the mathematical foundations of the methods used in Applied Statistics. In this course, we would mostly deal with the basics of Applied Statistics. This field could also by sub-divided into two areas of interest.These two are Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. Both are definitive of their names. Descriptive Statistics includes all the techni ques used in organizing, summarizing, and presenting the data on hand, while Inferential Statistics includes all the techniques used in analyzing the sample data that will lead to generalizations about a population from which the sample came from. To clarify, we may use descriptive statistics for population data or sample data. If we are dealing with population data, then the results of the study are applicable only to the defined population.In the same manner, if we use descriptive statistics to sample data, then the conclusions are applicable only to the selected sample. JDEUSTAQUIO 4 1. 4 Statistical Inquiry Statistical Inquiry is a designed research that provides information needed to solve a research problem. Oftentimes, researchers can now find an appropriate statistical technique that will help them answer their research problems. This is because o the wide array of applications of the various statistical techniques used in a statistical inquiry. Below is the diagram depictin g the entire process of statistical inquiry.Step 1: †¢ Identify the Problem †¢ Plan the Study †¢ Collect the Data †¢ Explore the Data †¢ Analyze Data and Interpret the Results †¢ Present the Results Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 JDEUSTAQUIO 5 †¢ Theory without data is just an Opinion 2. 1 Measurement The data used for statistical analysis should always be accurate, complete, and up-todate because the information that we would get is only as good as the data that we have. Good quality data comes at a cost but if we have the assurance of obtaining essential information that answers our research problem then it is all worth it.Measurement is the process of determining the value or label of the variable based on what has been observed. Naturally, our interpretation of the values in our data will depend on the measurement system or the rule that we used to assign the values to the different categories of the variable. In particular, it will depend on the relationship among the values used in the system. The general classification used to describe the types of relationship among these values or categories is what is known as â€Å"levels of measurement†. The four levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio level.It is necessary to know the level of measurement used to measure a variable because this will help in the interpretation of the values of the variables and choosing the suitable statistical technique to use in the analysis. Ratio level of measurement has all of the following properties : a) the numbers in the system are used to classify a person/object into distinct, nonoverlapping, and exhaustive categories; b) the system arranges the categories according to magnitude; c) the system has a fixed unit of measurement representing a standard size throughout the scale; and d) the system has an absolute zero.JDEUSTAQUIO 6 Some examples of variables with ratio level of measurement are: 1. Distance t raveled by a car (in km) 2. Height of a flag pole (in metres) 3. Weight of a whole dressed chicken (in kilograms) Now we will discuss each of the properties that is required for a measuring scale to have in order for it to be considered as having a ratio level of measurement: a) The numbers in the system are used to classify a person/object into distinct nonoverlapping, and exhaustive categories. This first condition requires that we use categories that would place the observations logically into one and only one category.This means that two objects assigned the same value must belong in the same category and be placed in a different category if the characteristics of interest is really different. b) The system arranges the categories according to magnitude. This second property requires that the measurement system must arrange the categories according to either ascending or descending order. c) The system has a fixed unit of measurement representing a standard size throughout the s cale. The third property requires the scale to use a unit of measure that depicts a fixed and determinate quantity.This means that a one-unit difference must have the same interpretation wherever it appears in the scale. d) The system has an absolute zero. The fourth property requires the measurement system to have an absolute zero or the true zero point. This means that the scale considers the value, â€Å"0† (zero) as the complete absence of the characteristic itself. One example of this is any monetary measurement where zero means that there is absolutely no money. Interval Level of Measurement satisfies only the first three conditons of the ratio level of measurement.The only difference of the interval level of measurement to the ratio level of measurement is the absence of the absolute zero value. This means that the interval level of measurement considers â€Å"0† (zero) as a value like any other numbers and not as the absence of JDEUSTAQUIO 7 the characteristic of interest. The most common example of this is measuring temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit where the value â€Å"zero† does not mean that there is no temperature. Ordinal Level of Measurement satisfies only the first two conditons of the ratio level of measurement.The ordinal level of measurement only uses a scale that ranks or orders the observed values in either ascending or descending order. The interval or simply the difference of the scale from one point to another does not need to be equal all throughout the scale. For example the ranking of the student in class according to their grades could be tagged as 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and so on. The difference of the grade between the 1st student and the 2nd placed student does not need to be of the same gap between the 4 th placer and the 5th placer.Nominal Level of Measurement satisfies only the first property of the ratio level of measurement. The nominal level of measurement is the weakest level of measurement among the four. This is because its only aim is to classify the values into separate categories without regards to the ordering of these categories in ascending or descending manner. Most often, this level of measurement uses non-quantifiable categories like the different religions, zip code or the student number. 2. 2 Collecting Data 2. 2 . 1 Data Collection Methods The most commonly used methods for collecting data are: i. Use of Documented Data, ii. ) Surveys, iii. ) Experiments, and iv. ) Observation. Use of Documented Data It is not necessary to use original data in conducting studies; sometimes it would make things easier if the researcher uses the data that is already available if there is such one suitable for the study. The only dilemma with using documented data is its reliability and veracity. Therefore, the researcher must look closely on the source of this data to have a measure on the reliability JDEUSTAQUIO 8 of the data that would be used.Also, these documented data can be cat egorized in to two, the primary data and the secondary data. Primary Data are data documented by the primary source, meaning, the data collectors themselves documented the data. Secondary Data are data documented by a secondary source, meaning, an individual/agency, other than the data collectors, documented the data. Surveys Another common method of collecting data is the survey. The people who answer the questions in a survey are called the respondents. This method is much more expensive than collecting data using documented stuff.Another problem of using surveys is that reliability of the data depends mainly on the survey process itself, either from the respondent, the survey design, questionnaire or if it is a personal interview there might be a problem with the interviewer if he/she lacks training. The Survey is a method of collecting data on the variable/s of interest by asking people questions. When data came from asking all the people in the population, then it is called cen sus. On the other hand, when the data came from asking a sample of people selected from a well-defined population, the it is called a sample survey.Experiments If the researcher is interested in something that involves cause-and-effect relationship, conducting the experiment is most likely the suitable way of collecting data. The most common experiment that is normally conducted during the primary level is the mongo seed experiment. The aim of this experiment is to see the relationship of the growth of the mongo in relation with sunlight exposure, amount of water and the type of soil. The Experiment is a method of collecting data where there is direct human intervention on the conditions that may affect the values of the variable of interest.Observation Method The Observation Method is a method of collecting data on the phenomenon of interest by recording the observations made about the phenomenon as it actually happens. JDEUSTAQUIO 9 The observation method is useful in studying the reactions and behavior of individuals or groups of persons/objects in a given situation or environment as it happens, For example, a researcher may use the observation method to study the behavior patterns of an indigenous tribe which is difficult to be gathered using the other methods. 2. 2. 2 The QuestionnaireThe questionnaire is an instrument for measuring which is used in various data collection methods (commonly used in surveys). The questionnaire may either be selfadministered or interview-based which are both explanatory of their names. 2. 2. 2. 1 Type of Questions ? A Closed-ended question is a type of question that includes a list of response categories from which the respondent will select his/her answer. ? An Open-ended question is a type of question that does not include response categories. Comparison of Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions Open-Ended ?Respondent can freely answer ? Can Elicit feeling and emotions of the respondent ? Can reveal new ideas and views tha t the researcher might not have considered ? Good for complex issues ? Good for questions whose possible responses are unknown ? Allow respondents to clarify answers ? Get detailed answers ? Shows how respondent think ? ? ? ? Closed-Ended Facilitates tabulation of responses Easy to code and analyze Saves time and money High response rate since it is simple and quick to answer ? Response categories make questions easy to understand ?Can repeat the study and easily make comparisons JDEUSTAQUIO Advantages 10 Disadvantages ? Difficult to tabulate and code ? High refusal late because it requires more ? ? ? ? ? Increases respondent to burden when time and effort on the respondent Respondents need to be articulate Responses can be inappropriate or vague May threaten respondent Responses have different levels of detail there are too many or too limited response categories ? Bias responses against categories excluded in the choices ? Difficult to detect if the respondent misinterpreted the q uestion 2. 2. . 2 Response Categories for Close-ended Questions 1. Two-way Question – provides only two alternative answers from which the respondent can chose Example: Have you ever traveled outside the country by any means of transportation? Yes No 2. Multiple-choice Question – provides more than two alternatives from which the respondent can only choose one. Example: What is your marital status? Never Married Divorced/Separated Married Widowed 3. Checklist Question – provides more than two alternatives from which the respondent can choose as many responses that apply to him/her.Example: What kind/s of novel do you like to read? Comedy Romance Fantasy Sci-Fi Horror Non-fiction Mystery Others, please specify ____________ JDEUSTAQUIO 11 4. Ranking Question – provides categories that respondents have to either arrange from highest to lowest or vice versa depending upon a particular criterion. Example: Below is a list of considerations in choosing and buyin g a new laptop. Put number (1) beside the quality that you prioritize the most, (2) for the second priority and so on. Prize Brand Quality Durability Style Novelty Warranty [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] . Rating Scale Question – provides a graded scale showing all possible directions and intensity of attitude of a respondent on a particular question or statement. Example: How satisfied are you on the teaching method of your instructor in this course? 1 Very Dissatisfied 2 Dissatisfied 3 Neutral 4 Satisfied 5 Very Satisfied 6. Matrix Question – a type of question which places various questions together to save space in the questionnaire. It is like having any of the five earlier types of questions and squeezing more than one question in a form of a table.Example: For each statement, please indicate with a checkmark whether you agree or disagree with it Statements Statistics is a very difficult subject Only few people could understand Statistics I would rather sleep than s tudy Statistics at home Agree Disagree JDEUSTAQUIO 12 2. 2. 2. 3 Pitfalls to Avoid in Wording Questions 1. Avoid Vague Questions – State all question clearly. All respondents must have the same interpretation to a question. If not, their answers will not be comparable, making it difficult to analyze their responses. Example: How often do you watch a movie in a movie theatre?Very Often Often Not too often Never Problem: The word â€Å"often† is vague. Instead, you may ask how many times did he/she watched a movie last month. 2. Avoid Biased Question – A biased question influences the respondents to choose a particular response over the other possible responses. Whether the bias is caused accidentally or intentionally, the data would become useless because it still failed to reveal the truth. Example: There are many different types of sport like badminton, basketball, billiards, bowling and tennis. Which type of sport d you enjoy watching?Problem: The sports menti oned in the first sentence will be in the top of the minds of the respondents. It is likely for the respondents to choose from among these sports. This will result in a bias against the sports not mentioned in the list. 3. Avoid Confidential and Sensitive Questions – These questions usually offend the pride or jeopardize the prestige of the respondent. Example: Do you bring home office supplies? If yes, how often do you bring home office supplies? Problem: The question may sound offensive to the pride of the respondent. 4.Avoid Questions that are difficult to answer – Do not ask questions that are too difficult for the respondent to answer truthfully. Such questions would only encourage respondents to guess their answers, if not totally refuse to answer the question. Example: If you are the president of the nation, what are you going to do to attain economic recovery? JDEUSTAQUIO 13 5. Avoid Questions that are confusing or perplexing to answer – Sometimes a poor ly written question can confuse the respondent on how to answer the question Example: Did you eat out and watch a movie last weekend?Problem: This is a double-barreled question, where you combine two or more question in to a single question. You should opt to separate this question into two to avoid confusion. 6. Keep the Questions short and simple – Long and complicated question can be difficult to understand. The respondent may lose interest in the question because of its length or might have problem comprehending very long statement needed to understand the question. 2. 3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques 2. 3. 1 Basic Concepts As we have discussed on the previous Chapter 1, sample is the subset of a population.Some people think that if we are basing our analysis on samples, why don’t we just guess our analysis entirely without any data? This question could be partially answered by a quote from Sir Charles Babbage, the Father of the Computer who said that, â€Å"Err ors using inadequate data are much less than those using no data at all†. So now, before we can talk about the different sampling selection procedures, we need to familiarize ourselves first with some terms. The target population is the population we want to study The sampled population is the population from where we actually select the sampleIt is good if the target and the sampled population have the same collection of elements. The problem is that often times in life, expectations do not jive well with reality. One example where the target and the sampled population would be different from each other is the case where the target population is the collection of all the residents of Metro Manila. If we would be using a telephone directory to select our sample, this collection would be very different from the target population since this would exclude all the residents that have no landline.JDEUSTAQUIO 14 The sampling frame or frame is a list or map showing all the sampling u nits in the population. In any statistical inquiry, whether the data will come from a census or from a sample, it is important that we are conscious of all the possible errors that we introduce (hopefully not intentionally) in the results of the study. In order for us to do this and reduce these errors, we need to understand the possible sources of errors, namely, the sampling errors and the nonsampling errors.Sampling error is the error attributed to the variation present among the computed values of the statistic from the different possible samples consisting of n elements. Nonsampling errors is the error from other sources apart from sampling fluctuations Note that the ONLY TIME that the sampling error would not be present is if we have conducted a census. However, census results are NOT ERROR-FREE. Census and samples can both have nonsampling errors (simply the errors not brought solely by sampling). Total Error Nonsampling Error Error in the implementation of the sampling desig n Measurement Error Sampling ErrorSelection Error Instrument Error Frame Error Population Specification Error Response Error Processing Error Interviewer Bias Surrogate Information Error Diagram of the Various Sources of Error JDEUSTAQUIO 15 2. 3. 2 Methods of Probability Sampling Probability Sampling is a method of selecting a sample wherein each element in the population has a known, nonzero chance of being included in the sample; otherwise, it is a nonprobability sampling method. ? A nonzero chance of inclusion means that the sampling procedure must give all the elements of the sample population an opportunity of being a part of the sample.All of the elements that belong in the sampled population must be included in the selection process. ? Another requirement of probability sampling is that we should be able to determine the chance that an element will be included in the selected sample. Take note that the probability of each element in the sampled population need not be equal t o each other. 2. 3. 2. 1 Simple Random Sampling Simple Random Sampling (SRS) is a probability sampling method wherein all possible subsets consisting of n elements selected from the N elements of the population have the same chances of selection.In simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR), all the n elements in the sample must be distinct from each other. In simple random sampling with replacement (SRSWR), the n elements in the sample need not be distinct, that is, an element can be seleceted more than once as a part of the sample. The most apparent example of SRSWOR that we could see every day on mass media is the National lottery where the numbers that would be drawn must be distinct and every number should have an equal chance of being selected in the draw. JDEUSTAQUIO 16 Visual representation of Simple Random Sampling without Replacement. 2. 3. 2. 2 Stratified SamplingStratified sampling is a probability sampling method where we divide the population into nonoverlappi ng subpopulations or strata, and then select one sample from each stratum. The sample consists of all the samples in the different strata. Stratified sampling, in general, simply requires the division of the population into nonoverlapping strata, wherein each element of the population needs to belong to exactly one stratum. Then each sample would be selected form the strata using any probability sampling method. If simple random sampling used for each sample in the strata then this sampling is called stratified random sampling.JDEUSTAQUIO 17 Visually, it might look something like the image below. With our population, we can easily separate the individuals by color. Once we have the strata determined, we need to decide how many individuals to select from each stratum. The most common practice is that the number selected should be proportional. In our case, 1/4 of the individuals in the population are blue, so 1/4 of the sample should be blue as well. Working things out, we can see th at a stratified (by color) random sample of 4 should have 1 blue, 1 green and 2 red. JDEUSTAQUIO 18 2. 3. 2. 3 Systematic SamplingSystematic sampling is a probability sampling method wherein the selection of the first element is at random and the selection of the other elements in the sample is systematic by taking every kth element from the random start, where k is the sampling interval To select a sample using systematic sampling, we need to perform the following steps: 1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique serial number, from 1 to N, to each one of the elements in the population. 2. Choose n = sample size so that it is a divisor of N = population size. Compute for the sampling interval k = N/n. 3.Select a number from 1 to k, using a randomization mechanism. Denote the selected number by r. The element in the population assigned to this number is the first element of the sample. 4. The other elements of the sample are those assigned to the numbers r + k, r + 2k, r +3 k, and so on, until you get a sample size of n. 5. In case that k = N/n is not a whole number; the first element would still be r but would be a randomly chosen number from 1 to N instead k as used on the previous step. By visual explanation, so to use systematic sampling, we need to first order our individuals, then select every kth.In our example, we want to use 3 for k? Can you see why? Think what would happen if we used 2 or 4. JDEUSTAQUIO 19 For our starting point, we pick a random number between 1 and k. For our visual, let's suppose that we pick 2. The individuals sampled would then be 2, 5, 8, and 11. 2. 3. 2. 4 Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method wherein we divide the population into nonoverlapping groups or clusters consisting of one or more elements, and then select a sample of clusters. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters.To select a sample using cluster sampling, we need to perform the following steps: 1. Divide t he population into nonoverlapping clusters. 2. Number the clusters in the population from 1 to N. 3. Select n distinct numbers from 1 to N using a randomization mechanism. The selected clusters are the clusters associated with the selected numbers 4. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters. Cluster sampling is often confused with stratified sampling, because they both involve â€Å"groups†. In reality, they're very different. In stratified sampling, we split the population up into groups (strata) based on some characteristic.In essence, we use cluster sampling when our population is already broken up into groups (clusters), and each cluster represents the population. That way, we just select a certain number of clusters. JDEUSTAQUIO 20 With our visual, let's suppose the 12 individuals are paired up just as they were sitting in the original population. Since we want a random sample of size four, we just select two of the clusters. We would number t he clusters 1-6 and use technology to randomly select two random numbers. It might look something like this: JDEUSTAQUIO 21 2. 3. 2. 5 Multistage SamplingMultistage sampling is a probability sampling method where there is a hierarchical configuration of sampling units and we select a sample of these units in stages. Unlike all the other previously presented sample selection procedures where the process of sampling takes place in a single phase, we accomplish the selection of the elements in the sample under multistage sampling after several stages of sampling. We first partition the population into non-overlapping primary stage units (PSUs) and select a sample of PSUs. We then subdivide the selected PSUs into non-overlapping second-stage units (SSUs) and select a sample of SSUs.We continue the process until we identify the elements in the sample at the last stage of sampling. For example, consider a light-bulb example using two-stage sampling procedure. Let's suppose that the bulbs come off the assembly line in boxes that each contains 20 packages of four bulbs each. One strategy would be to do the sample in two stages: Stage 1: A quality control engineer removes every 200th box coming off the line. (The plant produces 5,000 boxes daily. (This is systematic sampling. ) Stage 2: From each box, the engineer then samples three packages to inspect. (This is an example of cluster sampling. 2. 3. 3 Methods of Nonprobability Sampling All sampling methods that do not satisfy the requirements of probability sampling are considered as nonprobability sampling selection procedures. These methods do not make use of randomization mechanism in identifying the sampling units included in the sample. It allows the researcher to choose the units in the sample subjectively. And since the sample selection is subjective, there is really no way to assess the reliability of the results without so much assumptions (remember assumptions are very prone to mistakes). JDEUSTAQUIO 22Despit e this drawback of nonprobability sampling, these methods are still more commonly used since it is less costly and easier to administer. Here are some of the most basic nonprobability sampling selection procedures: 2. 3. 3. 1 Haphazard or Convenience Sampling In haphazard or convenience sampling, the sample consists of elements that are most accessible or easier to contact. This usually includes friends, acquaintances, volunteers, and subject who are available and willing to participate at the time of the study. The most common example that we could see on the television is the text polls about a certain issue.This type of sampling the opinion of the people doesn’t involve randomization mechanism in the selection of the units in the sample. This is sometimes referred to as the nonprobability counterpart of simple random sampling. 2. 3. 3. 2 Judgement or Purposive Sampling The elements are carefully selected to provide a â€Å"representative† sample. Studies have demons trated that selection bias can arise even with expert choice but nevertheless the method may be appropriate for very small samples when the expert has a good deal of information about the population-elements. The two common features of the method are: a. sampling units often consist of relatively large groups; and, b. ) sampling units are chosen so that they will provide accurate estimates for important control variables for which results are known for the whole population and its hoped that it will give â€Å"good† estimates for other variables that are highly correlated with the control variables. This sampling method may be considered as the nonprobability counterpart of Cluster sampling. 2. 3. 3. 3 Quota Sampling This is considered as the nonprobability counterpart of stratified sampling. In this method, interviewers are assigned quotas of respondents of different types to interview.The quotas are sometimes chosen to be in proportion to the estimated population figures fo r various types, often based on past census data. The researcher also chooses the groups or strata in the study but the selection of the sampling units within the stratum does not make use of a probability sampling method. JDEUSTAQUIO 23 2. 4 Presentation of Data After data collection, we organize and analyze the data, and then we present the results of our analysis in some form that will allow us to reveal and highlight the important information that we were able to extract.Unless we do this, we will only get lost in huge mound of numbers and labels that we have collected. Our grade school teachers already taught us this various kinds of presenting the data so why do we need to study this again? We may be familiar with the line chart and the bar chart but we need to learn or review the basic principles of constructing a good table and a good graph. With good data presentation, we can discover, and even explore possible relationships. Poor data presentation will only mislead, deceiv e, and misinform.It is therefore essential that we remember to put a more conscious effort to use these different methods of presentation properly in order to maximize data description and analysis. 2. 4. 1 Textual Presentation Textual Presentation of data incorporates important figures in a paragraph of text. In textual presentation, it aims to direct the readers’ attention to some data that need particular emphasis as well as to some important comparisons and to supplement with a narrative account from a table or a chart. It could also show the summary measures like minimum, maximum, totals and percentages.We do not need to put all figures in a textual presentation; we just have to select the most important ones that we want to focus on. Example: The Philippine Stock Exchange composite index lost 7. 19 points to 2,099. 12 after trading between 2,095. 30 and 2,108. 47. Volume was 1. 29 billion shares worth 903. 15 million pesos (16. 7milliondollars). The broader all share in dex gained 5. 21 points to 1,221. 34. (From: Free mandated March 17, 2005) When the data become voluminous, the textual presentation is strongly not advised because the presentation becomes almost incomprehensible.JDEUSTAQUIO 24 2. 4. 2 Tabular Presentation Tabular Presentation of data arranges figures in a systematic manner in rows and columns. Tabular presentation is the most common method of data presentation. It can be used for various purposes such as description, comparison, and even showing relationships between two or more variables of interest. We will discuss three types of presenting in tabular form, namely; Leader Work, Text Tabulation and Formal Statistical table which is categorized according to their format and layout. Leader WorkLeader work has the simplest layout among the three types of tables. It contains no table title or column headings and has no table borders. This table needs an introductory or descriptive statement so that the reader can understand the given figures. The Population in the Philippines for the Census Years 1975 to 2000 is as follows a 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 a b 42,070,660 48,098,460 60,703,206b 68,616,536b 76,498,735 National Statistics Office The 1990 and 1995 figures include the household population, homeless population, and Filipinos in Philippines embassies and mission abroad.In addition, the census comprise institutional population found living quarters such as penal institutions, orphanages, hospitals, military camps, etc. As you can see, the above table would not be clear without the introductory statement. Likewise, both have no table numbers that we can use to refer to these figures. Thus, we use the leader work when there are only one or two columns of figures that we can incorporate as part of the textual presentation for a more organized presentation. Text Tabu lat io n The format of text tabulation is a little bit more complex than leader work.It already has column headings and table borders so that it is easier to understand than leader work. However it still does not have table title and table number. Thus, it also requires an introductory statement so that the readers can comprehend the given figures. Similar to leader work, we can place additional explanatory statement in the footnote. JDEUSTAQUIO 25 The Population in the Philippines for the Census Years 1975 to 2000 is as follow a Year 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 a b No. of Filipinos (in thousands) 42,070. 66 48,098. 46 60,703. 21b 68,616. 54b 76,498. 4 National Statistics Office The 1990 and 1995 figures include the household population, homeless population, and Filipinos in Philippines embassies and mission abroad. In addition, the census comprise institutional population found living quarters such as penal institutions, orphanages, hospitals, military camps, etc. Form al Statistical Table The formal statistical table is the most complete type of table since it has all the different and essential parts of a table like table numbe r, table title, head note, box head, stub head, column headings, and so on.It could be a stand-alone table since it does not need any accompanying texts and it could be easily understood on its own. Heading consists of the table number, title and head note. It is located on top of the table of figures. i. Table number is the number that identifies the position of the table in a sequence. ii. Table title states in telegraphic form of the subject, data classification, and place and period covered by the figures in the table. iii. Head note appears below the title but above the top cross rule of the table and provides additional information about the table.Box head consists of spanner heads and columns heads. i. Spanner head is a caption or label describing two or more column heads. ii. Column head is a label that describes the figures in a column. iii. Panel is a set of column heads under the same spanner head. Stub consists of row captions, center head, and stub head. It is located a t the left side of the table. i. Row caption is a label that describes the figures in a row. ii. Center head is a label describing a set of row captions. iii. Stub head is a caption or label that describes all of the center heads and row captions.It is located on the first row. iv. Block is a set of row captions under the same center head. JDEUSTAQUIO 26 Table number Stub head Title Head note Table 10. 9 Employed Persons by Major Industry Group January 2008 – October 2010 (in thousands) Panel Heading Spanner head Column head Industry Group Oct Total Agriculture Center head Agriculture, Hunting and Forestry Fishing 36,488 12,265 10,769 1,496 5,375 197 3,058 163 1,957 18,550 2010 Jul Apr 36,237 12,244 10,760 1,484 5,409 194 3,003 141 2,071 18,585 35,413 11,512 10,073 1,439 5,487 212 3,063 137 2,075 18,414 Jan 6,001 11,806 10,351 1,455 5,322 193 3,009 157 1,963 18,872 Oct 35,478 12,072 10,563 1,509 5,154 169 2,937 160 1,888 18,250 2009 Jul Apr 35,508 11,940 10,476 1,464 5,273 17 7 2,947 145 2,004 18,294 34,997 12,313 10,841 1,472 5,088 166 2,841 130 1,951 17,595 Jan 34,262 11,846 10,446 1,400 4,856 152 2,849 134 1,721 17,560 Oct 34,533 12,320 10,860 1,460 5,078 176 2,897 123 1,882 17,135 2008 Jul Apr 34,593 12,103 10,695 1,408 5,130 154 2,960 146 1,870 17,360 33,535 11,904 10,450 1,454 5,000 151 2,883 123 1,843 16,630 Jan 33,693 11,792 10,409 1,383 4,981 152 2,963 126 1,740 16,919Industry Mining nd Quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, Gas and Water Construction Services Wholesale & Retail Trade, Repair of Motor Vehicles, Motorcycles & Personal & Household Goods Hotels and Restaurants Transport, Storage and Communication Financial Intermediation Real Estate, Renting and Business Activities Public Administration & Defense, Compulsory Social Security Education Health and Social Work Other Community, Social & Personal Service Activities Private Households with Employed Persons Extra-Territorial Organizations & Bodies 7,158 7,030 6,885 7,064 6,901 ,725 6,681 6,6 35 6,528 6,599 6,322 6,333 1,119 2,711 412 1,239 1,037 2,704 420 1,166 991 2,741 383 1,061 1,104 2,735 384 1,119 1,012 2,735 375 1,100 1,064 2,694 376 1,090 976 2,628 389 1,023 988 2,660 337 1,044 941 2,587 373 985 984 2,525 369 969 924 2,575 366 953 964 2,674 364 904 BLOCK 1,771 1,165 465 855 1,954 1 1,835 1,238 457 866 1,831 1 1,959 1,156 447 984 1,804 3 1,823 1,146 432 949 2,114 2 1,771 1,168 412 868 1,908 0 1,772 1,157 428 876 2,110 2 1,794 1,068 408 907 1,718 3 1,659 1,157 435 857 1,785 3 1,690 1,096 406 796 1,733 * 1,741 1,076 386 847 1,863 1 ,661 1,028 384 843 1,572 2 1,612 1,083 390 846 1,747 2 Notes: 1. Data were taken from the results of the quarterly rounds of the Labor Force Survey (LFS) using past week as reference peri od. 2. Details may not add up to totals due to rounding. 3. The definition of unemployment was revised starting the April 2005 round of the LFS. As such, LFPRs, employment rates and unemployment rates are not comparable with those of previous survey roun ds. Also starting with January 2007, estimates were based on 2000 Census-based projections. 4. Data are as of January 2012. / – preliminary source note Source: National Statistics Office (NSO). footnote JDEUSTAQUIO 27 2. 4. 3 Graphical Presentation Tabular Presentation of data portrays numerical figures or relationships among variables in pictorial form. The graph or statistical chart is a very powerful tool in presenting data. It is an important medium of communication because we can create a pictorial representation of the numerical figures found in tables without showing too many figures. We construct graphs not only for presentation purposes but also as an initial step in analysis.The graph, as a tool for analysis, can exhibit possible associations among the variables and can facilitate the comparison of different groups. It can also reveal trends over time. The different types of statistical charts are line chart, vertical bar chart, horizontal bar chart, pictograph, pie chart, and statistical map. It is important to know when and how to use these different charts. The selection of the correct type of chart depends upon the specific objective, the characteristic of the users, the kind of data, and the type of device and aterial on hand. Line Chart The line chart is useful for presenting historical data. This chart is effective in showing the movement of a series over time. As shown in the figures below, the movement can be increasing, decreasing, stationary, or could be fluctuating. Title at Top Scale figures for y-axis 20 No. of Accidents involving Company B during their Years of Service No. of Accidents Scale label for y-axis 15 10 Grid lines 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Footnote Source Note Years of Service Scale label for x-axisScale figures for x-axis JDEUSTAQUIO 28 NEVER use line charts/graphs that are too stretched either horizontally or vertically, for it may mislead the person looking at the graph and interpret it as something that it is not r eally representing. JDEUSTAQUIO 29 Types of Line Chart Simple Line Chart – This has only one curve and is appropriate for one series of time data. Multiple Line Chart – This type of line chart shows two or more curves. We use this if we wish to compare the trends in two or more data series.Although the use of Multiple Line Chart is now commonly used, it should be taken notice the number of series that you include in a graph, if there are a lot of series in a single chart, it might become too confusing to see. Number of Daily Responses (Example of Single Line Chart) JDEUSTAQUIO 30 Co lu m n Chart We use the column charts to compare amounts in a time series data. The emphasis in a column chart is on the differences in magnitude rather than the movement of a series. ? We can also use the column chart to graph the frequency distribution of a quantitative variable.We call this chart a frequency histogram. ? For time series data, we arrange the columns on the horizontal axis in chronological order, starting with the earliest date. Title at Top Grid lines Scale label for y-axis Scale figures for x-axis Scale figures for y-axis The proportions of the columns must be just right. Columns must not be too wide or too narrow. The space between the bars must also be just right. Usually, the space between bars is around one-fourth of the width of the column. It is also advisable to use scale figures that are multiples of 5.If the observed values are so small, we can use multiples of 1 or 2. JDEUSTAQUIO 31 Horizontal Bar Chart Its use is appropriate when we wish to show the distribution of categorical data. We use the horizontal bar chart so we can compare the magnitudes for the different categories of a qualitative variable. We place the categories of the qualitative variable on the yaxis. This will be more practical than placing the categories on the x-axis because there is more space for text labels on the y-axis. Just like the column charts, the bars should not be too wide, too narrow, too long and nor too short. Arranging the bars according to length usually facilitates comparisons. It may be decreasing or ascending order. ? If there are â€Å"Others† category, we always place this as the first or the last category. ? If the categorical variables have a natural ordering, such as a rating scale, then we should retain the order of the categories in the scale instead of arranging the bars according to length. ? We should always choose appropriate colors or patterns for the bars. We should avoid selecting wavy and weird patterns since this will only produce an optical illusion.JDEUSTAQUIO 32 Pie Chart It is a circle divided into several sections. Each section indicates the proportion of each component or category. This is useful for data sorted in to categories for a specific period. The purpose is to show the component parts with respect to the total in terms of the percentage distribution. The components of the pie chart should b e arranged according to magnitude. If there’s an ‘Others’ category, we put it in the last section. We use different colors, shading, or patterns to distinguish one section of the pie to the other sections.We plot the biggest slice at 12 o’clock. If we want to emphasize a particular sector of the pie chart, we may explode that slice by detaching it from the rest of the sectors. The pie chart is applicable for qualitative rather than quantitative data. However, if the variable has too many categories (more than 6), we should use the horizontal bar chart rather than the pie chart. JDEUSTAQUIO 33 Pictograph o It is like a horizontal bar chart but instead of using bars, we use symbols or pictures to represent the magnitude. o The purpose of this chart is to get the attention of the reader. The pictograph provides an overall picture of the data without presenting the exact figures. o Usually, we can only show approximate figures in a pictograph since we have to round off figures to whole numbers. It still allows the comparison of different categories even if we just present only the approximate values. o The choice for the symbol or picture should be apt for the type of data. It should be selfexplanatory, interesting, and simple. Statistical Maps ? ? ? ? ? This type of chart shows statistical data in geographical areas. This could also be called as crosshatched maps or shaded maps.Geographic areas may be barangays, cities, districts, provinces, and countries. The figures in the map can be ratios, rates, percentages, and indices. We do not use the absolute values and frequencies in statistical maps. JDEUSTAQUIO 34 Types of Statistical Maps ? Shaded Map – map that makes use of shading patterns. The shading pattern indicates the degree of magnitude. It usually runs gradually from dark to light (Darker shading of the map usually means larger magnitude). ? Dot map – chart that gives either the location or the number of establishme nts in a certain geographical area.The example below is a dot map of the number of people with Hispanic decent in the US. JDEUSTAQUIO 35 2. 5 Organization of Data The first step in data analysis is organizing the collected data. In its organized form, important features of the data become clear and apparent. The two common forms of organized data are the array and the frequency distribution 2. 5. 1 Raw Data and Array Raw Data are data in their original form. The actual data that we collect from surveys, observation, and experimentation are what we call raw data. Raw data have not yet been organized or processed in any manner.Example: Raw Data of the Final Grades of 100 Selected Students who took Stat 101 79 62 74 79 81 65 79 94 75 52 73 85 78 82 83 79 73 81 88 81 74 60 92 86 86 60 90 64 57 63 88 63 87 69 77 53 76 52 72 89 66 56 57 92 82 66 70 72 73 63 88 77 60 97 70 92 67 92 50 65 72 74 79 51 86 55 67 66 79 95 60 93 66 99 89 94 97 78 55 79 77 92 93 92 50 65 79 62 56 77 53 72 57 62 8 0 79 76 82 74 76 Array is an ordered arrangement of data according to magnitude. We also refer to the array as sorted data or ordered data Arranging the observations manually according to magnitude is very tedious especially if we are dealing with voluminous data.Thus, it is more convenient to use computer programs to sort the data. The array is not a summarized data set. It is simply an ordered set of observations. We consider both the raw data and array as ungrouped data. JDEUSTAQUIO 36 Example: Array of the Final Grades of 100 Selected Students who took Stat 101 50 50 51 52 52 53 53 55 55 56 56 57 57 57 60 60 60 60 62 62 62 63 63 63 64 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 67 67 69 70 70 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 74 74 74 74 75 76 76 76 77 77 77 77 78 78 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 80 81 81 81 82 82 82 83 85 86 86 86 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 92 92 92 92 92 92 93 93 94 94 95 97 97 99 2. 5. Frequency Distribution (FDT) The frequency distribution (FDT) is a way of summarizing data by showing the number of obs ervations that belong in the different categories or classes. We also refer to this as grouped data. The frequency distribution is another way of organizing the data. It is a summarized form of the raw data or array wherein we do not see the actual observed values anymore. The two general forms of frequency distribution are single-value grouping and grouping by class intervals: 1. Single-value grouping – is a frequency distribution where the classes are the distinct values of the variable.This is applicable for data with only a few unique values. 2. Grouping by Class Intervals – is a frequency distribution where the classes are the intervals. Example: Suppose we have data on the number of children of 50 married women using any modern contraceptive method. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 JDEUSTAQUIO 37 Since there are only 6 unique values in the data set, then we use single-value grouping, Distribution of Married Women Using Any Modern Method of Contraceptive by Number of Children No. of Children 0 1 2 3 4 5Number of Married Women 7 8 11 14 8 2 Concepts related to Frequency Distribution 1. Class Interval – is the range of values that belong in the class or category. 2. Class Frequency – is the number of observations that belong in a class interval. 3. Class Limits – are the end numbers used to define the class interval. The lower class limit (LCL) is the lower end number while the upper class limit (UCL) is the upper end number. 4. Open Class Interval – is a class interval with no lower class limit or no upper class limit. 5. Class Boundaries – are the true class limits.If the observations are rounded figures, then we identify the class boundaries based on the standard rules of rounding as follows: the lower class boundary (LCB) is halfway between the lower class limit of the class and the upper class limit of the preceding class while the upper class boundary (UCB) is halfway between the upper class limit of the class and the lower class limit of the next class. 6. Class size – is the size of the class interval. It is the difference between the upper class boundaries of the class and the preceding class; or the difference between the lower class boundaries of the next class and the class. . Class Mark – is the midpoint of a class interval. It is the average of the lower class limit and the upper class limit or the average of the lower class boundary and upper class boundary of a class interval. JDEUSTAQUIO 38 After learning the concepts that we need to construct a frequency distribution table, we can now list down the steps in constructing a frequency distribution table. †¢ Determine the adequate number of classes denoted by K Step 1: †¢ We can use the Sturges's rule to approximate the number of classes which is given by K = 1+ 3. 322(log n) Determine the range, R = highest observed value – s mallest observed Step 2: value †¢ Compute for the pre-class size C' = R/K Step 3: †¢ Determine the class size, C, by rounding-off C' to a convenient Step 4: number †¢ Choose the lower class limit of the first class. Make sure that the smallest Step 5: observation will belong in the first class. †¢ List the class intervals. Determine the lower class limits of the suceeding classes y adding the class size to the lower class limit of the previous class. The last lass Step 6: should include the largest observation. Step 7: †¢ Tally all the observed values in each class interval Sum the frequency column and check against the total number of Step 8: observations After constructing the basic frequency distribution table, we could now add some other components to it that would help us in the analysis of the data. o o Relative Frequency – is the class frequency divided by the total number of observations Relative Frequency Distribution Percentage (RFP)  œ is relative frequency multiplied by 100. JDEUSTAQUIO 39 The relative frequency and RFP show the proportion and percentage of observations falling in each class. The RFP allows us to compare two or more data sets with different totals.The sum of the RFP column is one hundred percent (100%). Another component that could be added to the FDT is the cumulative frequency distribution which is comprised of two components. o o The less than cumulative frequency distribution (CFD) shows the number of observations with values higher than or equal to the lower class boundary. Example: Using the data of the Grades of 10o Students who took Stat 101, we would construct the frequency distribution table with the extra components; RF, RFP CFD. First, we will compute for K using the Sturges’ rule, K = 1 + (3. 322*log n) = 1 + (3. 322*log 100) = 1 + (3. 322 *2) = 7. 644 ? Secondly, we compute for the range, R R = max. value – min. value = 99 – 50 = 49 Third, compute for Câ€℠¢ and eventually C C’ = R / K = 49 / 8 = 6. 125 ? 7 Now we can create the FDT for the data set, Class Limits LCL 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99 UCL 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 Class Boundaries LCB 49. 5 56. 5 63. 5 70. 5 77. 5 84. 5 91. 5 98. 5 UCB – 56. 5 – 63. 5 – 70. 5 – 77. 5 – 84. 5 – 91. 5 – 98. 5 – 105. 5 Frequency f 11 13 13 19 19 11 13 1 n=100 Class Mark x 53 60 67 74 81 88 95 102 RF f/n 0. 11 0. 13 0. 13 0. 19 0. 19 0. 11 0. 13 0. 01 RFP % 11 13 13 19 19 11 13 1 ; CFD 11 24 37 56 75 86 99 100 CFD ; CFD 100 89 76 63 44 25 14 1JDEUSTAQUIO 40 Graphical Presentation of the Frequency Distribution We can effectively interpret the frequency distribution when displayed pictorially since more people understand and comprehend the data in graphic form. In this section we would discuss the various method of presenting the frequency distribution in graphical form. 1. Frequency Histogram The frequency histogram shows the overall pictu re of the distribution of the observed values in the dataset. It displays the class boundaries on the horizontal axis and the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The frequency histogram shows the shape of the distribution.The area under the frequency histogram corresponds to the total number of observations. The tallest vertical bar shows the frequency of the class interval with the largest class frequency. 2. Relative Frequency/ Relative Frequency Percentage Histogram The RF or RFP histogram displays the class boundaries on the horizontal axis and the relative frequencies or RFPs of the class intervals on the vertical axis. It represents the relative frequency of each class by a vertical bar whose height is equal to the relative frequency of the class. The shape of the relative frequency histogram and frequency histogram are the same.JDEUSTAQUIO 41 3. Frequency Polygon For the frequency polygon, plot the class frequencies at the midpoint of the classes and connect the plotted p oints by means of straight lines. Since it is a polygon we need to close the ends of the graph. To close the polygon, add an additional class mark on both ends of the graph wherein both ends have the frequency of 0. The advantage of the frequency polygon over the frequency histogram is that it allows the construction of two or more frequency distributions on the same plot area. This facilitates the comparison of the different frequency distributions.The frequency polygon also exhibits the shape of the data distribution. JDEUSTAQUIO 42 4. Ogives The ogive is the plot of the cumulative frequency distribution. This graphical representation is used when we need to determine the number of observations below or above a particular class boundary. The less than ogive is the plot of the less than cumulative frequencies against the upper class boundaries. On the other hand, the greater than ogive is the plot of the greater than cumulative frequencies against the lower class boundaries. Connec t the successive points by straight lines.If we superimpose the less than and greater than ogives, the point of intersection gives us the value of the median. The median divides the ordered observations into two equal parts. JDEUSTAQUIO 43 †¢ Summary Measures Part 1 3. 1 Measures of Central Tendency The average is the popular term that is used to refer to a measure of central tendency. Most are already accustomed to thinking in terms of an average as a way of representing the collection of observations by a single value. For instance, we often use the average score to represent the scores in the exam of all students in a class.We can say that if the average score is high, then we conclude that the class performed well. The average could also be used to compare the performance of two groups based on the average of both groups and comparing which one has the higher average. The most common measure of central tendency is the arithmetic mean. The two other measures of central tende ncy that we will present in this section are the median and the mode. All of these measures aim to give information about the ‘center’ of the data or distribution. 3. 1 . 1 Summation NotationThe summation notation provides a compact way of writing the formulas for some of the summary measures that would be discussed in this section. The capital Greek letter â€Å"sigma†,? is the mathematical symbol that represents the process of summation. The symbol, ? is equal to X1 + X2 + X3 + †¦ + Xn where Xi = value of the variable for the ith observation i = index of the summation (the letter below ? ). 1 = lower limit of the summation (the number below ? ). n = upper limit of the summation (the letter above ? ). We read ? as â€Å"summation of X sub i, where I is from 1 to n†.JDEUSTAQUIO 44 S